{"work":{"id":"3cc938ec-4259-4f1a-86fc-6864781ec8d3","openalex_id":"https://openalex.org/W2070615515","doi":"10.1038/nature05374","arxiv_id":"2508.18083","raw_key":null,"title":"GWTC-4.0: Population Properties of Merging Compact Binaries","authors":null,"authors_text":"The LIGO Scientific Collaboration, the Virgo Collaboration, the KAGRA Collaboration: A. G. Abac, I. Abouelfettouh, F. Acernese, K. Ackley","year":2025,"venue":"astro-ph.HE","abstract":"We detail the population properties of merging compact objects using 158 mergers from the cumulative Gravitational-Wave Transient Catalog 4.0, which includes three types of binary mergers: binary neutron star, neutron star--black hole binary, and binary black hole mergers. We resolve multiple over- and under-densities in the black hole mass distribution: features persist at primary masses of $10\\,M_\\odot$ and $35\\,M_\\odot$ with a possible third feature at $\\sim 20\\,M_\\odot$. These are departures from an otherwise power-law-like continuum that steepens above $35\\,M_\\odot$. Binary black holes with primary masses near $10\\,M_\\odot$ are more likely to have less massive secondaries, with a mass ratio distribution peaking at $q = 0.74^{+0.13}_{-0.13}$, potentially a signature of stable mass transfer during binary evolution. Black hole spins are inferred to be non-extremal, with 90\\% of black holes having $\\chi < 0.57$, and preferentially aligned with binary orbits, implying many merging binaries form in isolation. However, we find a significant fraction, 0.24-0.42, of binaries have negative effective inspiral spins, suggesting many could be formed dynamically in gas-free environments. We find evidence for correlation between effective inspiral spin and mass ratio, though it is unclear if this is driven by variation in the mode of the distribution or the width. 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We resolve multiple over- and under-densities in the black hole mass distribution: features persist at primary masses of $10\\,M_\\odot$ and $35\\,M_\\odot$ with a possible third feature at $\\sim 20\\,M_\\odot$. These are departures from an otherwise power-law-like continuum that steepens above $35\\,M_\\odot$. Binary black holes wi","claim_type":"abstract","evidence_strength":"source_metadata"},{"claim_text":"reaching∼200detections over four observing runs [6]. These observations have provided unprecedented insights ∗ aravichandran@umassd.edu into the properties of black holes and the dynamics of their mergers, which have been crucial for testing general relativity (GR) in the strong-field regime [7] and un- derstanding the astrophysical processes that lead to the formation of BBHs [8]. In most scenarios, gravitational radiation efficiently circularizes the orbit, so BBHs were long expected to be nea","claim_type":"background","confidence":0.95,"evidence_strength":"citation_context"},{"claim_text":"Mukherjee, (2025), arXiv:2509.09123 [astro-ph.HE]. [50] F. Antonini, I. Romero-Shaw, T. Callister, F. Dosopoulou, D. Chattopadhyay, Y. B. Ginat, M. Gieles, and M. Mapelli, (2025), arXiv:2509.04637 [astro-ph.HE]. [51] H. Tonget al., Nature652, 874 (2026), arXiv:2509.04151 [astro-ph.HE]. [52] I. Magana Hernandez and A. Palmese, Phys. Rev. D 111, 083031 (2025). [53] Y. B. Ginat, F. Antonini, E. Flanagan, and M. Gieles, arXiv e-prints , arXiv:2604.07456 (2026), arXiv:2604.07456 [astro-ph.HE]. [54] M","claim_type":"background","confidence":0.9,"evidence_strength":"citation_context"},{"claim_text":"δmin Low-mass smoothing [M ⊙] [0,10] 5 mmin Minimum mass [M ⊙] [3,10] 5 mmax Maximum mass [M ⊙] [30,150] 90 β m 2 power law index [−10,10] 1 α m 1 power law index [−10,10]−2.5 mgap Maximumm 2 [M⊙] [30,150] 45 α m 1 index below break [−10,10]−1.5 αb m1 index above break [−10,10]−4 mb m1 break mass [M ⊙] [25,50] 34 H0 Hubble parameter [km s−1 Mpc−1] [20,200] 67.74 Ωm Matter density = 0.3075 0.3075 tween the BH spins and binary orbital angular momenta are fit with IID truncated Gaussian distributio","claim_type":"background","confidence":0.9,"evidence_strength":"citation_context"},{"claim_text":"Samsing, Phys. Rev. D97, 103014 (2018), arXiv:1711.07452 [astro-ph.HE]. [12] M. Zevin, J. Samsing, C. Rodriguez, C.-J. Haster, and E. Ramirez-Ruiz, Astrophys. J.871, 91 (2019), arXiv:1810.00901 [astro-ph.HE]. [13] S. Naoz, W. M. Farr, Y. Lithwick, F. A. Rasio, and J. Teyssandier, Mon. Not. 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Roy. Astron. Soc.431, 2155 (2013), arXiv:1210.2155 [astro-ph.EP]. [14] F. Antonini, S. Toonen, and A. S. Hamers, Astrophys. J. 841, 77 (2017), arXiv:1703.06614 [astro-ph.GA]. [15] Y. Levin, Mon. Not. Roy. Astr","claim_type":"background","confidence":0.9,"evidence_strength":"citation_context"},{"claim_text":"injection studies; as an application, we examine how spectral-siren Hubble constant uncertainties change with catalog size. Introduction.-Population inference is now central to gravitational-wave (GW) astronomy. The latest catalog, GWTC-4.0 [1, 2], contains 218 events observed by the LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA Collaboration (LVK) [ 3-5]. 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These are departures from an otherwise power-law-like continuum that steepens above $35\\,M_\\odot$. Binary black holes wi","claim_type":"abstract","evidence_strength":"source_metadata"}],"why_cited":"Pith tracks GWTC-4.0: Population Properties of Merging Compact Binaries because it crossed a citation-hub threshold.","role_counts":[]},"error":null,"updated_at":"2026-05-14T14:41:44.834340+00:00"}},"summary":{"title":"GWTC-4.0: Population Properties of Merging Compact Binaries","claims":[{"claim_text":"We detail the population properties of merging compact objects using 158 mergers from the cumulative Gravitational-Wave Transient Catalog 4.0, which includes three types of binary mergers: binary neutron star, neutron star--black hole binary, and binary black hole mergers. We resolve multiple over- and under-densities in the black hole mass distribution: features persist at primary masses of $10\\,M_\\odot$ and $35\\,M_\\odot$ with a possible third feature at $\\sim 20\\,M_\\odot$. These are departures from an otherwise power-law-like continuum that steepens above $35\\,M_\\odot$. Binary black holes wi","claim_type":"abstract","evidence_strength":"source_metadata"}],"why_cited":"Pith tracks GWTC-4.0: Population Properties of Merging Compact Binaries because it crossed a citation-hub threshold.","role_counts":[]},"graph":{"co_cited":[{"title":"GWTC-4.0: Updating the Gravitational-Wave Transient Catalog with Observations from the First Part of the Fourth LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA Observing Run","work_id":"373a2c61-2309-4528-87c8-9053657b5ebd","shared_citers":25},{"title":"Advanced LIGO","work_id":"b93186e6-8d0a-440a-aa48-9de6dbff57b9","shared_citers":14},{"title":"Advanced Virgo: a 2nd generation interferometric gravitational wave detector","work_id":"29d52a5a-6fd3-471b-8fec-d17c29cf9026","shared_citers":13},{"title":"Physical Review X , author =","work_id":"de36106e-a598-4745-b46e-db71d36e0b38","shared_citers":12},{"title":"Akutsuet al.(KAGRA Collaboration), Overview of KA- GRA: Detector design and construction history, PTEP2021, 05A101 (2021), arXiv:2005.05574 [physics.ins-det]","work_id":"5d6cbaec-f994-4631-bca0-649752990e3b","shared_citers":11},{"title":"Computationally efficient models for the dominant and sub-dominant harmonic modes of precessing binary black holes","work_id":"00f3c2bc-d169-42df-be45-172745f646cd","shared_citers":11},{"title":"G., Abouelfettouh, I., Acernese, F., et al","work_id":"7bc06761-baf4-4d76-9251-b2db8ab1ddb8","shared_citers":11},{"title":"Classical and Quantum Gravity , author =","work_id":"bb12d183-305a-49b7-bd45-4fffec483287","shared_citers":10},{"title":"GW231123: A Binary Black Hole Merger with Total Mass 190–265M ⊙","work_id":"acb0e78d-b098-4d33-a93c-a75b3583cf54","shared_citers":10},{"title":"GWTC-3: Compact Binary Coalescences Observed by LIGO and Virgo During the Second Part of the Third Observing Run","work_id":"da52a8d9-11a6-46c6-a2f5-89dab8381497","shared_citers":10},{"title":"Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger","work_id":"ab878228-151c-4a29-8026-a4308b076d30","shared_citers":10},{"title":"Abbottet al.(KAGRA, VIRGO, LIGO Scientific), Popula- tion of merging compact binaries inferred using gravitational waves through GWTC-3, Phys","work_id":"04e0474f-c87d-48a4-a278-08f533322b30","shared_citers":9},{"title":"Bilby: A user-friendly Bayesian inference library for gravitational-wave astronomy","work_id":"d639e2d8-7766-4408-a78b-d70b05a88b81","shared_citers":9},{"title":"Essick and W","work_id":"6340c9ba-f1f0-4c49-9dfc-b22f38be9068","shared_citers":9},{"title":"2023, PhRvX, 13, 041039, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevX.13.041039","work_id":"eb29753b-4392-4029-9456-838c56f9e39a","shared_citers":8},{"title":"GWTC-2: Compact Binary Coalescences Observed by LIGO and Virgo During the First Half of the Third Observing Run","work_id":"7410f8dd-43ce-418e-a2fe-baea0cf36999","shared_citers":8},{"title":"Tests of General Relativity with GWTC-3","work_id":"a1a21d1d-87a3-4fbe-be6f-efe2ea2acb33","shared_citers":8},{"title":"2017, PhRvL, 119, 161101, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.161101","work_id":"b99fdecb-f7a4-4228-b7da-bcf1eb01b7d4","shared_citers":7},{"title":"DYNESTY: a dynamic nested sampling package for estimating Bayesian posteriors and evidences","work_id":"838bbbf0-e03a-4893-a204-1a830384f3ff","shared_citers":7},{"title":"Essicket al., Compact binary coalescence sensitivity es- timates with injection campaigns during the LIGO-Virgo- KAGRA Collaborations’ fourth observing run, Phys","work_id":"8c244d80-e448-49c8-9677-5025d11d3ef7","shared_citers":7},{"title":"Ev- idence for Three Subpopulations of Merging Binary Black Holes at Different Primary Masses","work_id":"db744953-58a9-4748-b290-4874d5ab2cd2","shared_citers":7},{"title":"GWTC-1: A Gravitational-Wave Transient Catalog of Compact Binary Mergers Observed by LIGO and Virgo during the First and Second Observing Runs","work_id":"ed2ab6af-3b84-426b-a8d5-c1f2cb6b0af7","shared_citers":7},{"title":"GWTC-4.0: Methods for Identifying and Characterizing Gravitational-wave Transients","work_id":"642e86b9-e3ac-4047-aca4-761cb674b6d2","shared_citers":7},{"title":"Post-Newtonian Theory for Gravitational Waves","work_id":"6cb2442c-e284-4ded-a540-4da7a2454980","shared_citers":7}],"time_series":[{"n":2,"year":2025},{"n":44,"year":2026}],"dependency_candidates":[]},"authors":[{"id":"59d922b0-a777-47ce-97f2-3d652ee7e69e","orcid":null,"display_name":"F. 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