{"bundle_type":"pith_open_graph_bundle","bundle_version":"1.0","pith_number":"pith:2021:IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42FK7RCHSUQH","short_pith_number":"pith:IQRR3NBQ","canonical_record":{"source":{"id":"2109.01187","kind":"arxiv","version":2},"metadata":{"license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","primary_cat":"cs.NI","submitted_at":"2021-09-02T19:35:11Z","cross_cats_sorted":[],"title_canon_sha256":"63b03ef0ced463ec7886d6929c51d581f27a5ca982bbeae1cb0af967792beaaf","abstract_canon_sha256":"ebac1e4d5f62b5800a5725d2cba7929a3ca52a9781198035134e78d748d47d31"},"schema_version":"1.0"},"canonical_sha256":"44231db430a461f05f9a2abf111e5481c850201333b16ee246a40db31aa10d59","source":{"kind":"arxiv","id":"2109.01187","version":2},"source_aliases":[{"alias_kind":"arxiv","alias_value":"2109.01187","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z"},{"alias_kind":"arxiv_version","alias_value":"2109.01187v2","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z"},{"alias_kind":"doi","alias_value":"10.48550/arxiv.2109.01187","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z"},{"alias_kind":"pith_short_12","alias_value":"IQRR3NBQURQ7","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z"},{"alias_kind":"pith_short_16","alias_value":"IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z"},{"alias_kind":"pith_short_8","alias_value":"IQRR3NBQ","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z"}],"events":[{"event_type":"record_created","subject_pith_number":"pith:2021:IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42FK7RCHSUQH","target":"record","payload":{"canonical_record":{"source":{"id":"2109.01187","kind":"arxiv","version":2},"metadata":{"license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","primary_cat":"cs.NI","submitted_at":"2021-09-02T19:35:11Z","cross_cats_sorted":[],"title_canon_sha256":"63b03ef0ced463ec7886d6929c51d581f27a5ca982bbeae1cb0af967792beaaf","abstract_canon_sha256":"ebac1e4d5f62b5800a5725d2cba7929a3ca52a9781198035134e78d748d47d31"},"schema_version":"1.0"},"canonical_sha256":"44231db430a461f05f9a2abf111e5481c850201333b16ee246a40db31aa10d59","receipt":{"kind":"pith_receipt","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","algorithm":"ed25519","signed_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09.413876Z","signature_b64":"8Vs2ZxjuTfU45BB1roRvhe3fESCw0KEncOLsvqqmeSnLpqebd4sKw8Q7DQCgGtt+D9++Eh39tx63cYIvx3j2BQ==","signed_message":"canonical_sha256_bytes","builder_version":"pith-number-builder-2026-05-17-v1","receipt_version":"0.3","canonical_sha256":"44231db430a461f05f9a2abf111e5481c850201333b16ee246a40db31aa10d59","last_reissued_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09.413445Z","signature_status":"signed_v1","first_computed_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09.413445Z","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54"},"source_kind":"arxiv","source_id":"2109.01187","source_version":2,"attestation_state":"computed"},"signer":{"signer_id":"pith.science","signer_type":"pith_registry","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54"},"created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z","supersedes":[],"prev_event":null,"signature":{"signature_status":"signed_v1","algorithm":"ed25519","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","signature_b64":"YZjeZURZK0r1yvIWWq69WAKjrk2GKiWM810nAErqq3SNTlEMr526Jn7bMsuvHfbjIo7RAey2ruw2clAUUifXDA==","signed_message":"open_graph_event_sha256_bytes","signed_at":"2026-08-17T08:55:15.474109Z"},"content_sha256":"e5ecb32017b7a6167b89fb4eaa4dca44656be78764e5f69cea8eaafa088eb608","schema_version":"1.0","event_id":"sha256:e5ecb32017b7a6167b89fb4eaa4dca44656be78764e5f69cea8eaafa088eb608"},{"event_type":"graph_snapshot","subject_pith_number":"pith:2021:IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42FK7RCHSUQH","target":"graph","payload":{"graph_snapshot":{"paper":{"title":"Hosting Industry Centralization and Consolidation","license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","headline":"","cross_cats":[],"primary_cat":"cs.NI","authors_text":"Arthur Selle Jacobs, Giovane C. M. Moura, Lisandro Zambenedetti Granville, Luciano Zembruzki, Mattijs Jonker, Raffaele Sommese","submitted_at":"2021-09-02T19:35:11Z","abstract_excerpt":"There have been growing concerns about the concentration and centralization of Internet infrastructure. In this work, we scrutinize the hosting industry on the Internet by using active measurements, covering 19 Top-Level Domains (TLDs). We show how the market is heavily concentrated: 1/3 of the domains are hosted by only 5 hosting providers, all US-based companies. For the country-code TLDs (ccTLDs), however, hosting is primarily done by local, national hosting providers and not by the large American cloud and content providers. We show how shared languages (and borders) shape the hosting mark"},"claims":{"count":0,"items":[],"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57"},"source":{"id":"2109.01187","kind":"arxiv","version":2},"verdict":{"id":null,"model_set":{},"created_at":null,"strongest_claim":"","one_line_summary":"","pipeline_version":null,"weakest_assumption":"","pith_extraction_headline":""},"integrity":{"clean":true,"summary":{"advisory":0,"critical":0,"by_detector":{},"informational":0},"endpoint":"/pith/2109.01187/integrity.json","findings":[],"available":true,"detectors_run":[],"snapshot_sha256":"c28c3603d3b5d939e8dc4c7e95fa8dfce3d595e45f758748cecf8e644a296938"},"references":{"count":0,"sample":[],"resolved_work":0,"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57","internal_anchors":0},"formal_canon":{"evidence_count":0,"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57"},"author_claims":{"count":0,"strong_count":0,"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57"},"builder_version":"pith-number-builder-2026-05-17-v1"},"verdict_id":null},"signer":{"signer_id":"pith.science","signer_type":"pith_registry","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54"},"created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z","supersedes":[],"prev_event":null,"signature":{"signature_status":"signed_v1","algorithm":"ed25519","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","signature_b64":"rRzyBBBjUzZgV0P2M8GDlD1KSVJWmcw1eUpm0Cw567C2yEnbrXh4uijIiaHiZlbstV9cM6O+92NzafMuizcwAA==","signed_message":"open_graph_event_sha256_bytes","signed_at":"2026-08-17T08:55:15.475211Z"},"content_sha256":"a6130668cef4d7a110c9f1b733bfb9c02860d4573499ef4e15b9f9e6d6d86e45","schema_version":"1.0","event_id":"sha256:a6130668cef4d7a110c9f1b733bfb9c02860d4573499ef4e15b9f9e6d6d86e45"}],"timestamp_proofs":[],"mirror_hints":[{"mirror_type":"https","name":"Pith Resolver","base_url":"https://pith.science","bundle_url":"https://pith.science/pith/IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42FK7RCHSUQH/bundle.json","state_url":"https://pith.science/pith/IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42FK7RCHSUQH/state.json","well_known_bundle_url":"https://pith.science/.well-known/pith/IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42FK7RCHSUQH/bundle.json","status":"primary"}],"public_keys":[{"key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","algorithm":"ed25519","format":"raw","public_key_b64":"stVStoiQhXFxp4s2pdzPNoqVNBMojDU/fJ2db5S3CbM=","public_key_hex":"b2d552b68890857171a78b36a5dccf368a953413288c353f7c9d9d6f94b709b3","fingerprint_sha256_b32_first128bits":"RVFV5Z2OI2J3ZUO7ERDEBCYNKS","fingerprint_sha256_hex":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","rotates_at":null,"url":"https://pith.science/pith-signing-key.json","notes":"Pith uses this Ed25519 key to sign canonical record SHA-256 digests. Verify with: ed25519_verify(public_key, message=canonical_sha256_bytes, signature=base64decode(signature_b64))."}],"merge_version":"pith-open-graph-merge-v1","built_at":"2026-08-17T08:55:15Z","links":{"resolver":"https://pith.science/pith/IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42FK7RCHSUQH","bundle":"https://pith.science/pith/IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42FK7RCHSUQH/bundle.json","state":"https://pith.science/pith/IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42FK7RCHSUQH/state.json","well_known_bundle":"https://pith.science/.well-known/pith/IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42FK7RCHSUQH/bundle.json"},"state":{"state_type":"pith_open_graph_state","state_version":"1.0","pith_number":"pith:2021:IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42FK7RCHSUQH","merge_version":"pith-open-graph-merge-v1","event_count":2,"valid_event_count":2,"invalid_event_count":0,"equivocation_count":0,"current":{"canonical_record":{"metadata":{"abstract_canon_sha256":"ebac1e4d5f62b5800a5725d2cba7929a3ca52a9781198035134e78d748d47d31","cross_cats_sorted":[],"license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","primary_cat":"cs.NI","submitted_at":"2021-09-02T19:35:11Z","title_canon_sha256":"63b03ef0ced463ec7886d6929c51d581f27a5ca982bbeae1cb0af967792beaaf"},"schema_version":"1.0","source":{"id":"2109.01187","kind":"arxiv","version":2}},"source_aliases":[{"alias_kind":"arxiv","alias_value":"2109.01187","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z"},{"alias_kind":"arxiv_version","alias_value":"2109.01187v2","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z"},{"alias_kind":"doi","alias_value":"10.48550/arxiv.2109.01187","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z"},{"alias_kind":"pith_short_12","alias_value":"IQRR3NBQURQ7","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z"},{"alias_kind":"pith_short_16","alias_value":"IQRR3NBQURQ7AX42","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z"},{"alias_kind":"pith_short_8","alias_value":"IQRR3NBQ","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z"}],"graph_snapshots":[{"event_id":"sha256:a6130668cef4d7a110c9f1b733bfb9c02860d4573499ef4e15b9f9e6d6d86e45","target":"graph","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z","signer":{"key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","signer_id":"pith.science","signer_type":"pith_registry"},"payload":{"graph_snapshot":{"author_claims":{"count":0,"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57","strong_count":0},"builder_version":"pith-number-builder-2026-05-17-v1","claims":{"count":0,"items":[],"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57"},"formal_canon":{"evidence_count":0,"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57"},"integrity":{"available":true,"clean":true,"detectors_run":[],"endpoint":"/pith/2109.01187/integrity.json","findings":[],"snapshot_sha256":"c28c3603d3b5d939e8dc4c7e95fa8dfce3d595e45f758748cecf8e644a296938","summary":{"advisory":0,"by_detector":{},"critical":0,"informational":0}},"paper":{"abstract_excerpt":"There have been growing concerns about the concentration and centralization of Internet infrastructure. In this work, we scrutinize the hosting industry on the Internet by using active measurements, covering 19 Top-Level Domains (TLDs). We show how the market is heavily concentrated: 1/3 of the domains are hosted by only 5 hosting providers, all US-based companies. For the country-code TLDs (ccTLDs), however, hosting is primarily done by local, national hosting providers and not by the large American cloud and content providers. We show how shared languages (and borders) shape the hosting mark","authors_text":"Arthur Selle Jacobs, Giovane C. M. Moura, Lisandro Zambenedetti Granville, Luciano Zembruzki, Mattijs Jonker, Raffaele Sommese","cross_cats":[],"headline":"","license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","primary_cat":"cs.NI","submitted_at":"2021-09-02T19:35:11Z","title":"Hosting Industry Centralization and Consolidation"},"references":{"count":0,"internal_anchors":0,"resolved_work":0,"sample":[],"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57"},"source":{"id":"2109.01187","kind":"arxiv","version":2},"verdict":{"created_at":null,"id":null,"model_set":{},"one_line_summary":"","pipeline_version":null,"pith_extraction_headline":"","strongest_claim":"","weakest_assumption":""}},"verdict_id":null}}],"author_attestations":[],"timestamp_anchors":[],"storage_attestations":[],"citation_signatures":[],"replication_records":[],"corrections":[],"mirror_hints":[],"record_created":{"event_id":"sha256:e5ecb32017b7a6167b89fb4eaa4dca44656be78764e5f69cea8eaafa088eb608","target":"record","created_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09Z","signer":{"key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","signer_id":"pith.science","signer_type":"pith_registry"},"payload":{"attestation_state":"computed","canonical_record":{"metadata":{"abstract_canon_sha256":"ebac1e4d5f62b5800a5725d2cba7929a3ca52a9781198035134e78d748d47d31","cross_cats_sorted":[],"license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","primary_cat":"cs.NI","submitted_at":"2021-09-02T19:35:11Z","title_canon_sha256":"63b03ef0ced463ec7886d6929c51d581f27a5ca982bbeae1cb0af967792beaaf"},"schema_version":"1.0","source":{"id":"2109.01187","kind":"arxiv","version":2}},"canonical_sha256":"44231db430a461f05f9a2abf111e5481c850201333b16ee246a40db31aa10d59","receipt":{"algorithm":"ed25519","builder_version":"pith-number-builder-2026-05-17-v1","canonical_sha256":"44231db430a461f05f9a2abf111e5481c850201333b16ee246a40db31aa10d59","first_computed_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09.413445Z","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","kind":"pith_receipt","last_reissued_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09.413445Z","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","receipt_version":"0.3","signature_b64":"8Vs2ZxjuTfU45BB1roRvhe3fESCw0KEncOLsvqqmeSnLpqebd4sKw8Q7DQCgGtt+D9++Eh39tx63cYIvx3j2BQ==","signature_status":"signed_v1","signed_at":"2026-07-05T03:51:09.413876Z","signed_message":"canonical_sha256_bytes"},"source_id":"2109.01187","source_kind":"arxiv","source_version":2}}},"equivocations":[],"invalid_events":[],"applied_event_ids":["sha256:e5ecb32017b7a6167b89fb4eaa4dca44656be78764e5f69cea8eaafa088eb608","sha256:a6130668cef4d7a110c9f1b733bfb9c02860d4573499ef4e15b9f9e6d6d86e45"],"state_sha256":"63c27fdc2ff3a96fbd81df6288d7146d2d4504ba5dc73396823d19134e0e11d8"},"bundle_signature":{"signature_status":"signed_v1","algorithm":"ed25519","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","signature_b64":"2abGGa2lHySZPXrZ2Z5OXmt7UbBIqHDlNxFT5f7I0t4u8jcJZEaPq1PAxYaa2pYnmeccCL9TStRHyMncxo1KAg==","signed_message":"bundle_sha256_bytes","signed_at":"2026-08-17T08:55:15.537320Z","bundle_sha256":"b4617fd774664b325f187aedb36a0443e44317c8f1fa39c71d60b95bb06b3d9e"}}