{"bundle_type":"pith_open_graph_bundle","bundle_version":"1.0","pith_number":"pith:2020:YDBX7BRF33B2IM2POIGML6QS66","short_pith_number":"pith:YDBX7BRF","canonical_record":{"source":{"id":"2007.08406","kind":"arxiv","version":1},"metadata":{"license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","primary_cat":"stat.AP","submitted_at":"2020-07-16T15:26:23Z","cross_cats_sorted":["cs.AI"],"title_canon_sha256":"ba6af22a3ed22f578c259db1cfdc845b71f2dc01b80ab617bac5a7f17ed1e526","abstract_canon_sha256":"bd9aec4c9ba06c69b4436c83519ffa2bd9c0ccb531c8286f414ce67341eb5186"},"schema_version":"1.0"},"canonical_sha256":"c0c37f8625dec3a4334f720cc5fa12f79f6a3b20557b59332efe40f1313d7452","source":{"kind":"arxiv","id":"2007.08406","version":1},"source_aliases":[{"alias_kind":"arxiv","alias_value":"2007.08406","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z"},{"alias_kind":"arxiv_version","alias_value":"2007.08406v1","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z"},{"alias_kind":"doi","alias_value":"10.48550/arxiv.2007.08406","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z"},{"alias_kind":"pith_short_12","alias_value":"YDBX7BRF33B2","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z"},{"alias_kind":"pith_short_16","alias_value":"YDBX7BRF33B2IM2P","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z"},{"alias_kind":"pith_short_8","alias_value":"YDBX7BRF","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z"}],"events":[{"event_type":"record_created","subject_pith_number":"pith:2020:YDBX7BRF33B2IM2POIGML6QS66","target":"record","payload":{"canonical_record":{"source":{"id":"2007.08406","kind":"arxiv","version":1},"metadata":{"license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","primary_cat":"stat.AP","submitted_at":"2020-07-16T15:26:23Z","cross_cats_sorted":["cs.AI"],"title_canon_sha256":"ba6af22a3ed22f578c259db1cfdc845b71f2dc01b80ab617bac5a7f17ed1e526","abstract_canon_sha256":"bd9aec4c9ba06c69b4436c83519ffa2bd9c0ccb531c8286f414ce67341eb5186"},"schema_version":"1.0"},"canonical_sha256":"c0c37f8625dec3a4334f720cc5fa12f79f6a3b20557b59332efe40f1313d7452","receipt":{"kind":"pith_receipt","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","algorithm":"ed25519","signed_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46.947964Z","signature_b64":"AHFbSbRGTjEmYHaLFSgk/XDcUU/eMk9ghn7jqj/fWRVVZCv4k28hCPNqDufU4vh9tBFbyy0l7y9amoN/G8NRBA==","signed_message":"canonical_sha256_bytes","builder_version":"pith-number-builder-2026-05-17-v1","receipt_version":"0.3","canonical_sha256":"c0c37f8625dec3a4334f720cc5fa12f79f6a3b20557b59332efe40f1313d7452","last_reissued_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46.947509Z","signature_status":"signed_v1","first_computed_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46.947509Z","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54"},"source_kind":"arxiv","source_id":"2007.08406","source_version":1,"attestation_state":"computed"},"signer":{"signer_id":"pith.science","signer_type":"pith_registry","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54"},"created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z","supersedes":[],"prev_event":null,"signature":{"signature_status":"signed_v1","algorithm":"ed25519","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","signature_b64":"6aFX6H0gdo7L94W3o4xsFo5rZcd8sKuqvwOCvBUxUhkRcXo/EFdfWycmvMYWy1Zsk1AebauuP9V2PmejTuQdBQ==","signed_message":"open_graph_event_sha256_bytes","signed_at":"2026-07-07T13:28:19.895118Z"},"content_sha256":"6b7b706adaaa502bf714a70f93d51b7dff2e559ae42279534b000d7e3ac24ced","schema_version":"1.0","event_id":"sha256:6b7b706adaaa502bf714a70f93d51b7dff2e559ae42279534b000d7e3ac24ced"},{"event_type":"graph_snapshot","subject_pith_number":"pith:2020:YDBX7BRF33B2IM2POIGML6QS66","target":"graph","payload":{"graph_snapshot":{"paper":{"title":"The role of collider bias in understanding statistics on racially biased policing","license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","headline":"","cross_cats":["cs.AI"],"primary_cat":"stat.AP","authors_text":"Martin Neil, Norman Fenton, Steven Frazier","submitted_at":"2020-07-16T15:26:23Z","abstract_excerpt":"Contradictory conclusions have been made about whether unarmed blacks are more likely to be shot by police than unarmed whites using the same data. The problem is that, by relying only on data of 'police encounters', there is the possibility that genuine bias can be hidden. We provide a causal Bayesian network model to explain this bias, which is called collider bias or Berkson's paradox, and show how the different conclusions arise from the same model and data. We also show that causal Bayesian networks provide the ideal formalism for considering alternative hypotheses and explanations of bia"},"claims":{"count":0,"items":[],"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57"},"source":{"id":"2007.08406","kind":"arxiv","version":1},"verdict":{"id":null,"model_set":{},"created_at":null,"strongest_claim":"","one_line_summary":"","pipeline_version":null,"weakest_assumption":"","pith_extraction_headline":""},"integrity":{"clean":true,"summary":{"advisory":0,"critical":0,"by_detector":{},"informational":0},"endpoint":"/pith/2007.08406/integrity.json","findings":[],"available":true,"detectors_run":[],"snapshot_sha256":"c28c3603d3b5d939e8dc4c7e95fa8dfce3d595e45f758748cecf8e644a296938"},"references":{"count":0,"sample":[],"resolved_work":0,"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57","internal_anchors":0},"formal_canon":{"evidence_count":0,"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57"},"author_claims":{"count":0,"strong_count":0,"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57"},"builder_version":"pith-number-builder-2026-05-17-v1"},"verdict_id":null},"signer":{"signer_id":"pith.science","signer_type":"pith_registry","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54"},"created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z","supersedes":[],"prev_event":null,"signature":{"signature_status":"signed_v1","algorithm":"ed25519","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","signature_b64":"GnUc2KOsTpff3pS/d+X+Hd1dF/IE6kQ8OuNIb9izOttwPwQa5aAOtOLYqFvIkc8mIce02QqhaYsbZL2Xo7rTAQ==","signed_message":"open_graph_event_sha256_bytes","signed_at":"2026-07-07T13:28:19.895524Z"},"content_sha256":"c49e8330d5174671703fc71dd6f1ca4775d5d2a363eecf0d1ea772ce9ec67469","schema_version":"1.0","event_id":"sha256:c49e8330d5174671703fc71dd6f1ca4775d5d2a363eecf0d1ea772ce9ec67469"}],"timestamp_proofs":[],"mirror_hints":[{"mirror_type":"https","name":"Pith Resolver","base_url":"https://pith.science","bundle_url":"https://pith.science/pith/YDBX7BRF33B2IM2POIGML6QS66/bundle.json","state_url":"https://pith.science/pith/YDBX7BRF33B2IM2POIGML6QS66/state.json","well_known_bundle_url":"https://pith.science/.well-known/pith/YDBX7BRF33B2IM2POIGML6QS66/bundle.json","status":"primary"}],"public_keys":[{"key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","algorithm":"ed25519","format":"raw","public_key_b64":"stVStoiQhXFxp4s2pdzPNoqVNBMojDU/fJ2db5S3CbM=","public_key_hex":"b2d552b68890857171a78b36a5dccf368a953413288c353f7c9d9d6f94b709b3","fingerprint_sha256_b32_first128bits":"RVFV5Z2OI2J3ZUO7ERDEBCYNKS","fingerprint_sha256_hex":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","rotates_at":null,"url":"https://pith.science/pith-signing-key.json","notes":"Pith uses this Ed25519 key to sign canonical record SHA-256 digests. Verify with: ed25519_verify(public_key, message=canonical_sha256_bytes, signature=base64decode(signature_b64))."}],"merge_version":"pith-open-graph-merge-v1","built_at":"2026-07-07T13:28:19Z","links":{"resolver":"https://pith.science/pith/YDBX7BRF33B2IM2POIGML6QS66","bundle":"https://pith.science/pith/YDBX7BRF33B2IM2POIGML6QS66/bundle.json","state":"https://pith.science/pith/YDBX7BRF33B2IM2POIGML6QS66/state.json","well_known_bundle":"https://pith.science/.well-known/pith/YDBX7BRF33B2IM2POIGML6QS66/bundle.json"},"state":{"state_type":"pith_open_graph_state","state_version":"1.0","pith_number":"pith:2020:YDBX7BRF33B2IM2POIGML6QS66","merge_version":"pith-open-graph-merge-v1","event_count":2,"valid_event_count":2,"invalid_event_count":0,"equivocation_count":0,"current":{"canonical_record":{"metadata":{"abstract_canon_sha256":"bd9aec4c9ba06c69b4436c83519ffa2bd9c0ccb531c8286f414ce67341eb5186","cross_cats_sorted":["cs.AI"],"license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","primary_cat":"stat.AP","submitted_at":"2020-07-16T15:26:23Z","title_canon_sha256":"ba6af22a3ed22f578c259db1cfdc845b71f2dc01b80ab617bac5a7f17ed1e526"},"schema_version":"1.0","source":{"id":"2007.08406","kind":"arxiv","version":1}},"source_aliases":[{"alias_kind":"arxiv","alias_value":"2007.08406","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z"},{"alias_kind":"arxiv_version","alias_value":"2007.08406v1","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z"},{"alias_kind":"doi","alias_value":"10.48550/arxiv.2007.08406","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z"},{"alias_kind":"pith_short_12","alias_value":"YDBX7BRF33B2","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z"},{"alias_kind":"pith_short_16","alias_value":"YDBX7BRF33B2IM2P","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z"},{"alias_kind":"pith_short_8","alias_value":"YDBX7BRF","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z"}],"graph_snapshots":[{"event_id":"sha256:c49e8330d5174671703fc71dd6f1ca4775d5d2a363eecf0d1ea772ce9ec67469","target":"graph","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z","signer":{"key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","signer_id":"pith.science","signer_type":"pith_registry"},"payload":{"graph_snapshot":{"author_claims":{"count":0,"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57","strong_count":0},"builder_version":"pith-number-builder-2026-05-17-v1","claims":{"count":0,"items":[],"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57"},"formal_canon":{"evidence_count":0,"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57"},"integrity":{"available":true,"clean":true,"detectors_run":[],"endpoint":"/pith/2007.08406/integrity.json","findings":[],"snapshot_sha256":"c28c3603d3b5d939e8dc4c7e95fa8dfce3d595e45f758748cecf8e644a296938","summary":{"advisory":0,"by_detector":{},"critical":0,"informational":0}},"paper":{"abstract_excerpt":"Contradictory conclusions have been made about whether unarmed blacks are more likely to be shot by police than unarmed whites using the same data. The problem is that, by relying only on data of 'police encounters', there is the possibility that genuine bias can be hidden. We provide a causal Bayesian network model to explain this bias, which is called collider bias or Berkson's paradox, and show how the different conclusions arise from the same model and data. We also show that causal Bayesian networks provide the ideal formalism for considering alternative hypotheses and explanations of bia","authors_text":"Martin Neil, Norman Fenton, Steven Frazier","cross_cats":["cs.AI"],"headline":"","license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","primary_cat":"stat.AP","submitted_at":"2020-07-16T15:26:23Z","title":"The role of collider bias in understanding statistics on racially biased policing"},"references":{"count":0,"internal_anchors":0,"resolved_work":0,"sample":[],"snapshot_sha256":"258153158e38e3291e3d48162225fcdb2d5a3ed65a07baac614ab91432fd4f57"},"source":{"id":"2007.08406","kind":"arxiv","version":1},"verdict":{"created_at":null,"id":null,"model_set":{},"one_line_summary":"","pipeline_version":null,"pith_extraction_headline":"","strongest_claim":"","weakest_assumption":""}},"verdict_id":null}}],"author_attestations":[],"timestamp_anchors":[],"storage_attestations":[],"citation_signatures":[],"replication_records":[],"corrections":[],"mirror_hints":[],"record_created":{"event_id":"sha256:6b7b706adaaa502bf714a70f93d51b7dff2e559ae42279534b000d7e3ac24ced","target":"record","created_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46Z","signer":{"key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","signer_id":"pith.science","signer_type":"pith_registry"},"payload":{"attestation_state":"computed","canonical_record":{"metadata":{"abstract_canon_sha256":"bd9aec4c9ba06c69b4436c83519ffa2bd9c0ccb531c8286f414ce67341eb5186","cross_cats_sorted":["cs.AI"],"license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","primary_cat":"stat.AP","submitted_at":"2020-07-16T15:26:23Z","title_canon_sha256":"ba6af22a3ed22f578c259db1cfdc845b71f2dc01b80ab617bac5a7f17ed1e526"},"schema_version":"1.0","source":{"id":"2007.08406","kind":"arxiv","version":1}},"canonical_sha256":"c0c37f8625dec3a4334f720cc5fa12f79f6a3b20557b59332efe40f1313d7452","receipt":{"algorithm":"ed25519","builder_version":"pith-number-builder-2026-05-17-v1","canonical_sha256":"c0c37f8625dec3a4334f720cc5fa12f79f6a3b20557b59332efe40f1313d7452","first_computed_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46.947509Z","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","kind":"pith_receipt","last_reissued_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46.947509Z","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","receipt_version":"0.3","signature_b64":"AHFbSbRGTjEmYHaLFSgk/XDcUU/eMk9ghn7jqj/fWRVVZCv4k28hCPNqDufU4vh9tBFbyy0l7y9amoN/G8NRBA==","signature_status":"signed_v1","signed_at":"2026-07-05T01:19:46.947964Z","signed_message":"canonical_sha256_bytes"},"source_id":"2007.08406","source_kind":"arxiv","source_version":1}}},"equivocations":[],"invalid_events":[],"applied_event_ids":["sha256:6b7b706adaaa502bf714a70f93d51b7dff2e559ae42279534b000d7e3ac24ced","sha256:c49e8330d5174671703fc71dd6f1ca4775d5d2a363eecf0d1ea772ce9ec67469"],"state_sha256":"c5b9af2393357abae56696039d2c2cf0c943bebd464b3e0911d19b12b05e7878"},"bundle_signature":{"signature_status":"signed_v1","algorithm":"ed25519","key_id":"pith-v1-2026-05","public_key_fingerprint":"8d4b5ee74e4693bcd1df2446408b0d54","signature_b64":"YIxTjAcTiQmYlnvBQtJiycwcnLz6MK7dIrLIuAYJb1J32o7NNwTmOEzBAEgKgmE23EvFQgrR5V6Z8/TqDWPSDA==","signed_message":"bundle_sha256_bytes","signed_at":"2026-07-07T13:28:19.897462Z","bundle_sha256":"f28dce1a8b760794821993b8eea3fdc30f909a9fa7093a456cd9217d34557107"}}