Transient spiral arms, including Sellwood and Binney's horseshoe mechanism, generally heat the Galactic disk more than observed unless the spirals are strongly concentrated near corotation or have much larger pitch angles than today's.
The remaining unfixed parameters are then the number of spirals Nsp and their characteristic lifetimes τ , neither of which are known observationally
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Why is the Galactic disk so cool?
Transient spiral arms, including Sellwood and Binney's horseshoe mechanism, generally heat the Galactic disk more than observed unless the spirals are strongly concentrated near corotation or have much larger pitch angles than today's.