LLM-based dense retrievers generalize better when instruction-tuned but pay a specialization tax when optimized for reasoning; they resist typos and corpus poisoning better than encoder-only baselines yet remain vulnerable to semantic perturbations, with larger models and certain embedding geometry,
I so S core: Measuring the Uniformity of Embedding Space Utilization
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Transformers are limited to a linearly growing number of accessible output sequences with prompt length, with exponential decay in accessible proportion beyond a critical point, even under unbounded context.
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On the Robustness of LLM-Based Dense Retrievers: A Systematic Analysis of Generalizability and Stability
LLM-based dense retrievers generalize better when instruction-tuned but pay a specialization tax when optimized for reasoning; they resist typos and corpus poisoning better than encoder-only baselines yet remain vulnerable to semantic perturbations, with larger models and certain embedding geometry,
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How Many Different Outputs Can a Transformer Generate?
Transformers are limited to a linearly growing number of accessible output sequences with prompt length, with exponential decay in accessible proportion beyond a critical point, even under unbounded context.