PDFM embeddings reduce unexplained variance in subnational population estimates by a median 20.1% versus geospatial covariates, with gains strongest in larger less-developed areas but weaker transfer across scales.
The spatial allocation of population: a review of large-scale gridded population data products and their fitness for use
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Geospatial foundation-model embeddings improve population estimation unevenly across space and scale
PDFM embeddings reduce unexplained variance in subnational population estimates by a median 20.1% versus geospatial covariates, with gains strongest in larger less-developed areas but weaker transfer across scales.