The paper argues that classifying a system as a swarm or as exhibiting a given type of emergence requires knowledge of its unobservable internal dynamics, not just its observable trajectories.
Types and Forms of Emergence
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abstract
The knowledge of the different types of emergence is essential if we want to understand and master complex systems in science and engineering, respectively. This paper specifies a universal taxonomy and comprehensive classification of the major types and forms of emergence in Multi-Agent Systems, from simple types of intentional and predictable emergence in machines to more complex forms of weak, multiple and strong emergence.
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Classifying Emergence in Robot Swarms: An Observer-Dependent Approach
The paper argues that classifying a system as a swarm or as exhibiting a given type of emergence requires knowledge of its unobservable internal dynamics, not just its observable trajectories.