Opcode k-gram software birthmarks, especially 2-grams with Dice similarity, detect LLM code paraphrasing with high Hmean, though ChatGPT-style models are hardest to catch.
Java Birthmarks - Detecting the Software Theft -
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Detection of LLM-assisted Code Plagiarism Using k-gram Software Birthmarks
Opcode k-gram software birthmarks, especially 2-grams with Dice similarity, detect LLM code paraphrasing with high Hmean, though ChatGPT-style models are hardest to catch.