The paper argues that classifying a system as a swarm or as exhibiting a given type of emergence requires knowledge of its unobservable internal dynamics, not just its observable trajectories.
Detection and emergence
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abstract
Two different conceptions of emergence are reconciled as two instances of the phenomenon of detection. In the process of comparing these two conceptions, we find that the notions of complexity and detection allow us to form a unified definition of emergence that clearly delineates the role of the observer.
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Classifying Emergence in Robot Swarms: An Observer-Dependent Approach
The paper argues that classifying a system as a swarm or as exhibiting a given type of emergence requires knowledge of its unobservable internal dynamics, not just its observable trajectories.