The paper argues that the ICH E9(R1) estimands framework and causal inference define the same kinds of target effects in clinical trials, so they should be used as complementary tools.
Evaluating how clear the questions being investigated in randomised trials are: systematic review of estimands
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The Estimand Framework and Causal Inference: Complementary not Competing Paradigms
The paper argues that the ICH E9(R1) estimands framework and causal inference define the same kinds of target effects in clinical trials, so they should be used as complementary tools.