Mixing in confined fountains

We have experimentally investigated mixing in highly confined turbulent fountains, namely quasi-two-dimensional fountains. Fountains are formed when the momentum of the jet fluid is in the opposite direction to its buoyancy force. This work consists of two parts. First, we injected an ethanol/oil mixture (ouzo mixture) downward into quiescent water, forming a quasi-2D fountain with oil droplet nucleation (ouzo fountain). In the steady state, nucleation is restricted to the fountain rim, and there is hardly any nucleation in the fountain body, suggesting limited mixing with the bath in the quasi-two-dimensional fountain. By injecting a dyed ethanol solution as a reference case, we confirmed that the local water fraction within the fountain is indeed insufficient to induce nucleation. Second, we have studied the effect of density difference between the jet fluid and the ambient water systematically. We injected saline solutions upward into quiescent water with various concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) at various flow rates. The fountains show stronger mixing and thus lower concentration in the initial negatively buoyant jet (NBJ) stage. In the steady fountain stage, the confinement induces the shielding effect by the outer flow, which reduces the degree of mixing and leads to higher concentrations. Also, we show that the density difference is the critical parameter that determines the fountain concentration. The decreasing concentration with the density difference indicates that the larger (negative) buoyancy effect enhances the stretching of the fluid parcels \citep{Villermaux2019}, leading to a higher degree of mixing in the fountain. From the probability density functions of the concentration, we demonstrate that the degree of mixing in the steady fountain stage is largely determined in the developing stages for a quasi-2D fountain.