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arxiv: 2604.21730 · v1 · submitted 2026-04-23 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Massive star formation at the Galactic crossroads: Insights from G358.69+0.03 in the Galactic center

A. Cheema , V. S. Veena , K. M. Menten , T. S. Pillai , S. A. Dzib , A. Brunthaler , S. Khan , R. Dokara
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M. R. Rugel Y. Gong
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Pith reviewed 2026-05-09 21:36 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords high-mass star formationGalactic centercentral molecular zonecloud-cloud collisionSiO emissionHII regionsdust clumpsvelocity bridge
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The pith

Bar-driven cloud collisions at the far dust-lane-CMZ interface trigger high-mass star formation in G358.69+0.03.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper maps radio continuum, infrared, and molecular-line data across a U-shaped structure in the Sagittarius E complex near the Galactic center. It catalogs dozens of HII regions and cold dust clumps, many aligned with localized shocks traced by elevated mid-infrared flux ratios and broad SiO emission. A continuous velocity bridge exceeding 100 km/s is found linking far dust-lane inflow to the central molecular zone stream, with the strongest concentration of clumps and compact HII regions sitting exactly at that junction. The authors conclude that these diagnostics together indicate compression by bar-driven cloud-cloud collision as the trigger for the observed high-mass star formation.

Core claim

The largest concentration of cold dust clumps and compact HII regions occurs at the far dust-lane-CMZ interface, where mid-infrared shock maps and 15 clumps with broad SiO components coincide with a continuous velocity bridge spanning more than 100 km/s that connects the dust-lane inflow to the CMZ stream; these features together favor a bar-driven cloud-cloud collision that compressed the gas and initiated the high-mass star formation.

What carries the argument

The continuous velocity bridge (>100 km/s) linking far dust-lane inflow to the CMZ stream, together with broad SiO velocity components and localized mid-infrared shock enhancements, which the paper uses as direct tracers of the cloud-cloud collision.

If this is right

  • High-mass star formation in this subregion is a direct consequence of dynamical compression at the bar-CMZ interface rather than isolated gravitational collapse.
  • The U-shaped infrared-radio morphology traces the compressed interface layer where the collision occurs.
  • Similar collision-triggered episodes should appear at other bar dust-lane entry points into the CMZ.
  • The derived HII region properties indicate that the triggered population is already relatively evolved.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the collision mechanism holds, star-formation rates in the CMZ may be modulated by the periodic orbital passages of gas along the bar rather than by steady internal turbulence.
  • Targeted searches for analogous velocity bridges in other Galactic bar-fed regions could test whether this is a common channel for CMZ star formation.
  • Future proper-motion or polarization data could distinguish whether the observed shocks are purely compressive or carry a significant shear component.

Load-bearing premise

The broad SiO components and continuous velocity bridge are produced by cloud-cloud collision rather than other CMZ dynamics such as shear, outflows, or orbital streaming.

What would settle it

Higher-resolution kinematic maps that show the velocity bridge is dominated by shear or outflow patterns without a clear collision signature would falsify the trigger scenario.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.21730 by A. Brunthaler, A. Cheema, K. M. Menten, M. R. Rugel, R. Dokara, S. A. Dzib, S. Khan, T. S. Pillai, V. S. Veena, Y. Gong.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Left: Three-color infrared view of the Galactic plane on the negative longitude side, with MIPSGAL 24 µm emission in red, GLIMPSE 8 µm in green, and GLIMPSE 4.5 µm in blue. The golden box shows the Sgr E star-forming complex (358.3°<l<359.3°, |b| < 0.2°; Anderson et al. 2020). Right: 1.28 GHz MeerKAT image of the target region (Heywood et al. 2022). The dashed partial circles in both panels highlight the a… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Left: GLOSTAR D configuration radio continuum averaged intensity map at 5.8 GHz with an angular resolution of ∼ 18′′. The dashed white circle marks the target region. Right: GLOSTAR combination image (VLA-D+Effelsberg). The dashed cyan partial circles highlight the arc-like or U-shaped morphology of G358.69+0.03. The beam sizes are shown in the lower-left corner of each panel. The GC (|l| < 2°; |b| < 1°) w… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: MIR colors for the 37 sources (black crosses) associated with a WISE counterpart out of the total 49 radio sources found toward G358.69+0.03 in this work. The maroon, green, and ma￾genta circles represent the known, candidate, and radio-quiet H ii re￾gions, respectively, from the WISE Galactic H ii Regions Catalog V2.3 (Anderson et al. 2014). The region above the dashed black line repre￾sents the parameter… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Multiwavelength view of the known H ii region, G358.632+0.063. First row (from left to right): Color composite images from 2MASS (Skrutskie et al. 2006), GLIMPSE, WISE, and Spitzer. The red, green, and blue colors are shown in each panel. Middle and bottom rows (from left to right and top to bottom): MIPSGAL 24 µm, Hi-GAL 70 µm, Hi-GAL 160 µm, Hi-GAL 250 µm, Hi-GAL 350 µm, Hi-GAL 500 µm, ATLASGAL 870 µm, a… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Spectral types and Lyman continuum photon rates of the H ii regions derived from the VLA-D radio continuum data. The spectral types of the central ionizing stars range from very massive O6.5 type stars to B1.5 type stars. The resultant distribution of the spectral types is shown in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Classification of radio sources toward G358.69+0.03. The green crosses show the HII regions identified in this work. The cyan, magenta, and yellow circles mark the positions of cEGs, cPNe, and the uniden￾tified radio (Rad) sources, respectively. The dashed white circle marks the target region. The background image shows the GLOSTAR VLA-D configuration image. The beam size is shown in the lower-left corner.… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Left: Distribution of the ATLASGAL dust continuum sources (gold markers) overlaid on top of the color composite image of G358.69+0.03. The VLA-D+Effelsberg image is shown in red and the Hi-GAL 350 and 70 µm emission maps in green and blue, respectively. The dashed white circle shows G358.69+0.03. Right: Color composite image showing the VLA-D image in red and Spitzer bands of 24 and 8 µm in green and blue,… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Bolometric luminosity versus mass of Hi-GAL compact sources at distances between 8 and 9 kpc toward G358.69+0.03. The clumps are color-coded by temperature. The markers with thick lines are sources with high reliability parameters taken from Elia et al. (2021). The shapes of the markers (as shown in the legend) indicate different classi￾fication categories. The low-mass regime is taken from Saraceno et al.… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Flux ratio map of Spitzer [4.5 µm]/[3.6 µm] for the target region. The black crosses show the H ii regions identified in our work. The ma￾roon, blue, and gold circles mark the known, candidate, and radio-quiet H ii regions from the WISE H ii catalog. ure 10 shows longitudevelocity (LV) diagrams. In the large-scale LV diagram of the CMZ (Fig. 10a), several well-known features are evident, including the spir… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Left: Kinematics of the GC region revealed by the 12CO(3–2) longitude-velocity diagram. Right: Zoomed-in view of the LV diagram of the G358.69+0.03 region (l∼ –1.3◦ or 358.7◦ ). Cyan stars correspond to the 57 components of the SiO emission detected toward the 15 ATLASGAL clumps listed in Table B.6. The scale bar corresponds to the assumed GC distance of 8.2 kpc. clumps exhibit at least one velocity compo… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Sources observed with the APEX nFLASH230 receiver at a tuning frequency of 230.79 GHz (black crosses) overplotted on the inset flux ratio map of Spitzer [4.5 µm]/[3.6 µm] for the southern part of the target region, G358.69+0.03. The numbers represent the corresponding IDs of the sources given in Table B.6. The background image shows the VLA-D continuum map. Under the assumption that the SiO(5 – 4) emissio… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Left: Three-color map of the Sgr E region. Red shows 12CO(J=32) emission integrated over 240 to 190 km s−1 , tracing the far dust-lane component; blue shows 185 to 50 km s−1 , tracing the main CMZ stream and the emission bridge observed in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_12.png] view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Schematic illustration of gas inflow into the CMZ. Left: Gas streams along the near- and far-side dust lanes feed the CMZ. Sgr E is located at the intersection of the far dust lane and the CMZ orbit (adapted from Henshaw et al. 2023). Right: Zoomed-in view of the collision, where the far dust lane impacts the CMZ gas, compressing material and producing an arc-like or U-shaped distribution of H ii regions.… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We investigated the high-mass star formation activity in a subregion of the Sagittarius E star-forming complex, centered at (l,b) = (358.69 deg, 0.03 deg), where infrared and radio sources trace a prominent U-shaped structure that has not been identified in previous studies. We used radio continuum data from the Global View on Star Formation (GLOSTAR) survey, which is a wide-band radio (4-8 GHz) survey of the Milky Way that combines data from the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array and the Effelsberg 100 m telescope. Using BLOBCAT source extraction software, we identified 49 compact radio sources. Based on multiwavelength associations and spectral index estimates, we identified GLOSTAR counterparts to 27 previously confirmed HII regions, detected radio emission from 3 WISE "radio-quiet" candidates, and report 5 new HII region candidates. The derived physical properties indicate that most are relatively evolved HII regions. We find around 50 cold dust clumps, predominantly toward the south and southeast. Mid-infrared flux-ratio maps ([4.5]/[3.6]) show localized shock enhancements along the arc and adjacent clumps, and 15 clumps exhibit SiO emission with broad components indicative of shocks. Together with CO data, the SiO velocity components delineate a continuous (>100 km/s) velocity bridge that links the far dust-lane inflow to the central molecular zone (CMZ) stream. The largest concentration of clumps and compact HII regions lies at this interface. These combined diagnostics favor a scenario in which bar-driven cloud-cloud collision at the far dust-lane-CMZ interface compressed the gas and triggered the observed high-mass star formation.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

3 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper presents multi-wavelength observations of the G358.69+0.03 region using GLOSTAR 4-8 GHz radio data, identifying 49 compact sources (27 confirmed HII regions, 3 WISE radio-quiet counterparts, 5 new HII candidates) plus ~50 cold dust clumps. Mid-IR flux ratios and SiO emission reveal localized shocks, while CO and SiO data show a continuous >100 km/s velocity bridge linking far dust-lane inflow to the CMZ stream, with peak clump/HII concentration at the interface. The authors interpret these diagnostics as evidence for bar-driven cloud-cloud collision triggering high-mass star formation.

Significance. If the collision interpretation holds after quantitative tests against alternatives, the work contributes concrete multi-wavelength diagnostics (radio source counts, SiO shock tracers, velocity-bridge mapping) to the study of triggered star formation at the Galactic bar-CMZ interface. The identification of new HII candidates and the use of public GLOSTAR data for source extraction add to the observational inventory of this complex environment.

major comments (3)
  1. [kinematic analysis and discussion of SiO/CO velocity bridge] The central claim that the >100 km/s continuous velocity bridge and broad SiO components are produced by bar-driven cloud-cloud collision (rather than CMZ orbital streaming, differential shear, or bar-orbit streaming) is load-bearing but lacks quantitative discrimination. No comparison of observed velocity gradients, line widths, or shock strengths to predictions from pure orbital models is presented, leaving the interpretation consistent with but not uniquely required by the data.
  2. [radio continuum source extraction and classification] Spectral-index estimates used to classify the 27 HII regions and 5 new candidates are mentioned but no table of indices, uncertainties, or selection thresholds is referenced; without these, the robustness of the source counts and evolutionary-stage conclusions cannot be assessed.
  3. [spatial distribution analysis] The reported peak concentration of clumps and compact HII regions at the far dust-lane-CMZ interface is presented as supporting collision-triggered formation, yet no statistical test (e.g., overdensity significance relative to control regions or random distributions) is provided to rule out coincidence.
minor comments (2)
  1. Physical properties of the HII regions (e.g., sizes, luminosities) are stated to have been derived but no values, error bars, or comparison table appear in the abstract or summary; these should be included with uncertainties.
  2. The mid-IR [4.5]/[3.6] flux-ratio maps are described as showing 'localized shock enhancements' but quantitative thresholds or contour levels used to define enhancements are not specified.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive and detailed comments, which have identified areas where the manuscript can be clarified and strengthened. We address each major comment below and outline the revisions we will implement.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: The central claim that the >100 km/s continuous velocity bridge and broad SiO components are produced by bar-driven cloud-cloud collision (rather than CMZ orbital streaming, differential shear, or bar-orbit streaming) is load-bearing but lacks quantitative discrimination. No comparison of observed velocity gradients, line widths, or shock strengths to predictions from pure orbital models is presented, leaving the interpretation consistent with but not uniquely required by the data.

    Authors: We acknowledge that the interpretation would benefit from explicit comparison to alternative models. The observed continuous velocity bridge spanning >100 km/s, combined with broad SiO line components indicating shocks, is not characteristic of standard CMZ orbital streaming or differential shear, where velocity fields tend to be more fragmented and shocks less localized. In the revised manuscript we will add a dedicated paragraph in the discussion section that compares the measured velocity gradients, line widths, and shock indicators to published values and simulations of pure bar-orbit streaming and CMZ differential motions, thereby clarifying why the collision scenario remains the most consistent explanation for the full multi-tracer dataset. revision: yes

  2. Referee: Spectral-index estimates used to classify the 27 HII regions and 5 new candidates are mentioned but no table of indices, uncertainties, or selection thresholds is referenced; without these, the robustness of the source counts and evolutionary-stage conclusions cannot be assessed.

    Authors: We agree that the absence of tabulated spectral indices limits independent verification. Although the indices were derived from the GLOSTAR 4–8 GHz data, they were not presented in tabular form. In the revised version we will insert a new table listing the spectral index (with uncertainties where the signal-to-noise permits) for each of the 49 compact sources, together with the explicit classification thresholds (e.g., spectral index > −0.1 for thermal HII regions) and the criteria used to identify the five new candidates. This addition will allow readers to evaluate the robustness of the source classification and evolutionary conclusions. revision: yes

  3. Referee: The reported peak concentration of clumps and compact HII regions at the far dust-lane-CMZ interface is presented as supporting collision-triggered formation, yet no statistical test (e.g., overdensity significance relative to control regions or random distributions) is provided to rule out coincidence.

    Authors: The spatial peak is visually striking in the source maps and coincides precisely with the kinematic interface. Nevertheless, we recognize that a quantitative test would strengthen the argument against coincidence. In the revised manuscript we will add a short quantitative analysis that compares the surface density of clumps and compact radio sources within the interface region to adjacent control regions of comparable area, using a simple binning approach. The results and any associated caveats (e.g., small-number statistics) will be reported, allowing the reader to assess the significance of the observed concentration. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity in the observational interpretation chain.

full rationale

The paper reports identifications of radio sources, dust clumps, SiO shocks, and a velocity bridge from GLOSTAR, WISE, and CO data, then states that these diagnostics favor bar-driven cloud-cloud collision. No equations, fitted parameters, or self-citations reduce the triggering scenario to a quantity defined by the same dataset; the conclusion is presented as an interpretive synthesis of independent observables rather than a derivation that collapses by construction. The chain from positions/kinematics to causal claim is self-contained against external benchmarks.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The paper relies on standard radio-astronomy classification rules and molecular-line shock diagnostics rather than introducing new fitted parameters or postulated entities.

free parameters (1)
  • Distance to G358.69+0.03
    Physical sizes and luminosities of HII regions and clumps require an assumed distance, conventionally ~8 kpc for the Galactic center.
axioms (2)
  • domain assumption Spectral indices between roughly -0.1 and +2 indicate thermal free-free emission from HII regions
    Used to classify the 27 matched and 5 new radio sources as HII regions.
  • domain assumption Broad SiO line components trace shocks from cloud collisions or outflows
    Applied to interpret the 15 clumps with wide-velocity SiO emission.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5669 in / 1536 out tokens · 39357 ms · 2026-05-09T21:36:14.745951+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

48 extracted references · 48 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    G358.622+0.063 358.820° 358.800° 0.000° -0.010° -0.020° -0.030°

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  2. [2]

    G358.803-0.011 358.660° 358.650° 358.640° 358.630° -0.020° -0.030° -0.040°

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  3. [3]

    G358.644-0.033 358.690° 358.680° 358.670° -0.100° -0.110° -0.120° -0.130°

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    G358.683-0.116 358.650° 358.600° 358.550° -0.050° -0.100°

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    G358.599-0.060 358.800° 358.780° 358.760° 0.080° 0.060° 0.040°

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    G358.784+0.060 358.740° 358.720° 358.700° 0.020° 0.000°

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    G358.720+0.010 358.750° 358.700° -0.100° -0.120° -0.140° -0.160°

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    G358.719-0.125 358.560° 358.540° -0.020° -0.040°

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    G358.551-0.029 358.660° 358.640° -0.060° -0.070° -0.080° -0.090°

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    G358.651-0.077 358.850° 358.840° 0.030° 0.020°

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    G358.844+0.026 358.890° 358.880° 0.065° 0.060° 0.055° 0.050°

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    G358.881+0.056 358.540°358.520°358.500°358.480° 0.140° 0.120° 0.100° 0.080°

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    G358.505+0.108 358.890° 0.090° 0.085° 0.080° 0.075°

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    G358.890+0.082 358.620° 358.610° 0.185° 0.180° 0.175° 0.170° Galactic Longitude Galactic Latitude

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    G358.612+0.178 358.760° 358.750° 0.210° 0.205° 0.200° 0.195°

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    G358.758+0.203 358.840° 358.820° 358.800° 0.100° 0.080° 0.060°

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    G358.824+0.084 358.760° 358.750° 358.740° 0.060° 0.050° 0.040°

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    A.1: Morphologies of various H ii regions

    G358.753+0.053 358.550° 358.500° 358.450° 0.100° 0.050° [14a] 358.529+0.059 [14b] 358.521+0.028 [14c] 358.482+0.074 358.700° 358.680° -0.060° -0.080° -0.100° [21a 358.689-0.076 [21b] 358.681-0.088 Fig. A.1: Morphologies of various H ii regions. Each panel displays the source name and ID, along with the peak radio emission marked by cross symbols. The thic...

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    G358.789-0.020 358.825° 358.820° 358.815° 0.005° 0.000° -0.005°

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    G358.8220.000 358.780° 358.775° 358.770° 0.035° 0.030° 0.025°

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    G358.773+0.031 358.600° 358.590° 0.110° 0.105° 0.100° 0.095° 0.090°

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    G358.595+0.101 358.470° 358.460° 0.070° 0.065° 0.060° 0.055°

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    G358.466+0.064 358.720° 358.710° 0.045° 0.040° 0.035° 0.030°

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    G358.712+0.038 358.760° 358.740° -0.140° -0.150° -0.160° -0.170°

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    G358.747-0.154 358.910° 358.900° 0.040° 0.030° 0.020°

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    G358.905+0.029 358.565° 358.560° -0.090° -0.092° -0.094° -0.096° -0.098° Galactic Longitude Galactic Latitude

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  27. [27]

    G358.561-0.095 358.715° 358.710° 0.060° 0.055° 0.050°

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    G358.714+0.054 358.805° 358.800° 0.040° 0.035°

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    G358.804+0.037 358.565° 358.560° 358.555° -0.055° -0.060° -0.065°

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    A.1: Continued

    G358.559-0.061 Fig. A.1: Continued. be shaped by photo-evaporative flows, interactions with large- scale gas motions, or the influence of magnetic fields, which could help channel ionized gas along preferred directions (e.g., Mackey et al. 2013). Further investigation of the kinematics of the ionized gas through RRL observations is necessary to distin- guish...

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    G358.632+0.063 α = -0.25 ±0.01 5.0 6.0 7.0 102 50 60 70 80 90

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  32. [32]

    G358.917+0.072 α = -1.59 ±0.02 5.0 6.0 7.0 70 80

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  33. [33]

    G358.803-0.011 α = -0.26 ±0.03 5.0 6.0 7.0 70 80

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  34. [34]

    G358.644-0.033 α = -0.28 ±0.02 5.0 6.0 7.0 80 90

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  35. [35]

    G358.683-0.116 α = -0.32 ±0.03 5.0 6.0 7.0 20 30

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  36. [36]

    G358.592+0.046 α = -1.33 ±0.06 5.0 6.0 7.0 16 17 18 19 20 21

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  37. [37]

    G358.844+0.026 α = -0.34 ±0.07 5.0 6.0 7.0 13 14 15 16 17

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    G358.881+0.056 α = -0.13 ±0.08 5.0 6.0 7.0 101 9 11 12 13 14

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    G358.890+0.082 α = -0.33 ±0.1 5.0 6.0 7.0 101 8 9

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    G358.612+0.178 α = 0.02±0.13 5.0 6.0 7.04.0 5.0 6.0

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    G358.758+0.203 α = -0.34 ±0.15 5.0 6.0 7.0 101 6 7 8 9

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    G358.789-0.020 α = 0.28±0.28 5.0 6.0 7.0 101 4 5 6 7 8 9

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    G358.614-0.034 α = -0.89 ±0.41 5.0 6.0 7.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

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    G358.823-0.118 α = -0.1±0.17 5.0 6.0 7.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0

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    G358.822+0.000 α = -0.09 ±0.23 5.0 6.0 7.0 100 0.9 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.08.0

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    G358.773+0.031 α = -0.17 ±0.25 5.0 6.0 7.0 Frequency [Hz] 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 Peak flux [mJy/b]

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    G358.595+0.101 α = 0.13±0.38 5.0 6.0 7.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

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    B.3: Spectral index plots for the H ii regions

    G358.533-0.100 α = -0.99 ±0.32 Fig. B.3: Spectral index plots for the H ii regions. The spectral index ( α), source name and ID are given in each panel. Article number, page 24 A. Cheema et al.: Massive star formation in G358.69 +0.03 −200 −100 0 100 −0.02 0.00 0.02 G358.721-0.129 −200 −100 0 100 −0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 G358.762-0.131 −200 −100 0 100 0....

    work page