Hyperdoped silicon photodetectors enable room-temperature computational SWIR imaging at 1550 nm

Hele Savin; James Bullock; Jinyuan Chen; Kenneth Crozier; Patrik Mc Kearney; Simon Paulus; S\"oren Sch\"afer; Stefan Kontermann; Varsha Ashwin Vedaraj; Ville V\"ah\"anissi

arxiv: 2605.22470 · v1 · pith:AYGJOJQ6new · submitted 2026-05-21 · ⚛️ physics.optics · physics.ins-det

Hyperdoped silicon photodetectors enable room-temperature computational SWIR imaging at 1550 nm

Xiaolong Liu , S\"oren Sch\"afer , Jinyuan Chen , Patrik Mc Kearney , Simon Paulus , Varsha Ashwin Vedaraj , Ville V\"ah\"anissi , Stefan Kontermann

show 3 more authors

Kenneth Crozier James Bullock Hele Savin

This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-22 03:51 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ⚛️ physics.optics physics.ins-det

keywords hyperdoped siliconSWIR imagingroom-temperature photodetectors1550 nm detectioncomputational imagingsilicon photonicsphotoconductive mode

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The pith

Hyperdoped silicon photodetectors detect 1550 nm light at room temperature with detectivity above 10^9 Jones.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

Silicon cannot normally detect light past 1100 nm because of its bandgap, so short-wave infrared work has depended on costly III-V materials. This work shows that hyperdoping silicon past the solubility limit, followed by an ultrafast laser heating step, produces photodetectors that operate at 1550 nm in forward-biased photoconductive mode at room temperature. The devices reach specific detectivity above 10^9 Jones, a 59.4 dB linear dynamic range, and kHz bandwidth. These metrics support a single-pixel computational imaging setup that reconstructs 1550 nm scenes at 65 by 63 pixels without any cooling. The same detectors also respond to visible light, suggesting a route to silicon-based multispectral sensors.

Core claim

Hyperdoping silicon beyond its solid solubility limit and inserting an ultrafast laser heating step reduces dark current while preserving responsivity, yielding specific detectivity D* exceeding 10^9 Jones at 1550 nm under room-temperature, forward-biased photoconductive operation. With a 59.4 dB linear dynamic range and kHz-scale bandwidth, the detectors enable a single-pixel system to reconstruct 1550 nm scenes at 65x63 pixel resolution without cryogenic cooling and simultaneously support visible-light imaging for monolithically integrated multispectral sensors.

What carries the argument

Ultrafast laser heating applied after hyperdoping, which lowers dark current to raise detectivity at 1550 nm while the device remains in forward-biased photoconductive mode.

If this is right

Room-temperature operation eliminates the need for cryogenic cooling in SWIR imaging systems.
Single-pixel reconstruction at 65x63 pixels shows computational imaging is feasible with these detectors.
Simultaneous visible and SWIR response supports monolithic integration on silicon.
The platform offers a silicon-native route to low-cost SWIR photonics.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

The detectors could integrate directly with silicon readout circuits for compact multispectral cameras.
Cost reductions might open SWIR imaging to applications such as autonomous driving or industrial inspection.
Scaling the single-pixel approach to focal-plane arrays would test whether the same performance holds across larger formats.

Load-bearing premise

The ultrafast laser heating step reliably cuts dark current without creating defects that would reduce performance at 1550 nm.

What would settle it

Fabricate otherwise identical hyperdoped devices without the laser heating step and check whether room-temperature specific detectivity at 1550 nm drops below 10^9 Jones.

read the original abstract

Silicon's bandgap inherently restricts its photodetection to wavelengths below 1100 nm, necessitating the integration of costly III-V semiconductors for short-wave infrared applications. Hyperdoping silicon beyond the solid solubility limit offers a promising "silicon-native" alternative, yet achieving practical short-wave infrared applications at room temperature remains a formidable challenge. Here, we demonstrate a high-detectivity hyperdoped silicon photodetector enabling room-temperature computational short-wave infrared imaging beyond Si bandgap wavelength at {\lambda} = 1550 nm. By integrating an ultrafast laser heating process step to reduce the dark current while keeping high responsivity, we achieve a specific detectivity D^* exceeding 10^9 Jones for 1550 nm at room temperature working in a forward-biased, photoconductive mode. The improved detectivity, coupled with a 59.4 dB linear dynamic range and kHz-scale bandwidth, allows us to demonstrate a single-pixel imaging system that reconstructs 1550 nm scenes at 65x63 pixels without cryogenic cooling. Our devices simultaneously support visible-light imaging, offering a path toward monolithically integrated, multispectral Si-native optical sensors. These results establish ultrafast-laser hyperdoped silicon as a viable platform for low-cost, room-temperature, short-wave infrared photonics, bridging the gap between advanced materials science and practical computational imaging system.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Desk Editor's Note private letter to a colleague

Hyperdoped silicon with an ultrafast laser heating step reaches D* above 10^9 Jones at 1550 nm room temperature and supports a working single-pixel SWIR imager.

read the letter

This work shows that hyperdoped silicon, after an ultrafast laser heating step, can deliver specific detectivity above 10^9 Jones at 1550 nm at room temperature and support a single-pixel computational imaging setup. The new part is the practical demonstration: they report 59.4 dB dynamic range and kHz bandwidth in forward-biased mode, then use the detector to reconstruct 65x63 pixel images from SWIR scenes without any cooling. The devices also handle visible light, which points to multispectral potential on silicon. This extends earlier hyperdoping results into a system-level example that could matter for cheaper SWIR sensors in automotive or security uses. The fabrication improvement from the laser heating is presented as the reason the dark current drops enough for these numbers. That seems to be where the performance gain comes from over plain hyperdoped devices. The soft spot is the lack of visible supporting data in the abstract for how well the heating step works across samples or whether it avoids new defects at 1550 nm. The stress-test point about possible mid-gap states raising noise is worth checking in the full paper, because the whole claim rests on that process delivering consistent low noise while keeping responsivity. If the measurements are solid, the argument holds; if not, the results may not be as general. This paper is for people in optoelectronics and imaging who track silicon-based alternatives to III-V detectors. A reader interested in device fabrication tweaks and computational demos would find it relevant. It deserves peer review to verify the device metrics and process reproducibility.

Referee Report

3 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript demonstrates hyperdoped silicon photodetectors for room-temperature SWIR detection at 1550 nm. By incorporating an ultrafast laser heating step after hyperdoping, the authors report reduced dark current while retaining high responsivity, yielding D* > 10^9 Jones in forward-biased photoconductive mode, a 59.4 dB linear dynamic range, and kHz bandwidth. These metrics enable a single-pixel computational imaging system that reconstructs 65 × 63 pixel scenes at 1550 nm without cryogenic cooling; the devices are also shown to function for visible-light imaging.

Significance. If the performance figures prove reproducible, the work would establish a silicon-native route to practical room-temperature SWIR imaging, potentially enabling low-cost, monolithically integrated multispectral sensors and reducing reliance on III-V materials.

major comments (3)

[Results / Device characterization] The headline performance (D* > 10^9 Jones, 59.4 dB dynamic range) is presented without error bars, standard deviations, or raw I–V / noise spectra. This absence directly affects in the central claim that the ultrafast laser step produces a reliable, generalizable improvement over conventional hyperdoped devices.
[Fabrication and ultrafast laser processing] The manuscript invokes the ultrafast laser heating process to explain the reduction in dark current and the resulting detectivity gain, yet provides no direct evidence (e.g., DLTS spectra, TEM defect imaging, or spatially resolved responsivity maps) that the treatment does not introduce additional mid-gap states that would increase generation-recombination noise or degrade 1550 nm carrier collection.
[Imaging system and results] The single-pixel imaging demonstration (65 × 63 pixels) is offered as proof-of-concept for computational SWIR imaging, but the reconstruction algorithm, sampling pattern, and quantitative image-quality metrics (PSNR, SSIM, or noise-equivalent power) are not reported in sufficient detail to substantiate the claim that the detector’s bandwidth and dynamic range are adequate for practical use.

minor comments (2)

[Device operation] Clarify the exact bias conditions and circuit implementation of the “forward-biased photoconductive mode” and contrast it with conventional reverse-bias operation for hyperdoped devices.
[Figures] Ensure all spectral responsivity and noise plots include multiple-device statistics or shaded uncertainty regions to demonstrate process uniformity.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 1 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive and detailed comments. We address each major point below and have revised the manuscript to strengthen the presentation of our results on hyperdoped silicon photodetectors with ultrafast laser heating for room-temperature SWIR imaging at 1550 nm.

read point-by-point responses

Referee: [Results / Device characterization] The headline performance (D* > 10^9 Jones, 59.4 dB dynamic range) is presented without error bars, standard deviations, or raw I–V / noise spectra. This absence directly affects in the central claim that the ultrafast laser step produces a reliable, generalizable improvement over conventional hyperdoped devices.

Authors: The reported D* and dynamic range values reflect consistent measurements across multiple devices, with the ultrafast laser heating step yielding reproducible dark-current reduction relative to control hyperdoped samples without this treatment. To enhance transparency and address the concern directly, we will add error bars based on device-to-device statistics to the main-text figures and include representative raw I–V curves and noise spectra in the supplementary information of the revised manuscript. revision: yes
Referee: [Fabrication and ultrafast laser processing] The manuscript invokes the ultrafast laser heating process to explain the reduction in dark current and the resulting detectivity gain, yet provides no direct evidence (e.g., DLTS spectra, TEM defect imaging, or spatially resolved responsivity maps) that the treatment does not introduce additional mid-gap states that would increase generation-recombination noise or degrade 1550 nm carrier collection.

Authors: The central evidence remains the measured reduction in dark current at preserved 1550 nm responsivity, which produces the reported D* improvement and is reproducible across devices. We will expand the discussion section to include possible mechanisms drawn from the ultrafast-laser annealing literature and our electrical data. We currently lack DLTS or TEM characterization for these specific samples. revision: partial
Referee: [Imaging system and results] The single-pixel imaging demonstration (65 × 63 pixels) is offered as proof-of-concept for computational SWIR imaging, but the reconstruction algorithm, sampling pattern, and quantitative image-quality metrics (PSNR, SSIM, or noise-equivalent power) are not reported in sufficient detail to substantiate the claim that the detector’s bandwidth and dynamic range are adequate for practical use.

Authors: We agree that greater detail on the imaging demonstration will better support the claim. In the revised manuscript we will describe the compressive-sensing sampling pattern, the reconstruction algorithm, and report quantitative metrics including PSNR and SSIM for the example 1550 nm scenes, together with a discussion of noise-equivalent power relative to the demonstrated bandwidth and dynamic range. revision: yes

standing simulated objections not resolved

Direct microscopic or spectroscopic characterization (DLTS spectra, TEM defect imaging) of the ultrafast-laser-treated hyperdoped devices to confirm the absence of additional mid-gap states.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity: experimental device demonstration with direct measurements

full rationale

The paper reports measured device performance (D* > 10^9 Jones, 59.4 dB dynamic range, kHz bandwidth, single-pixel imaging) from fabricated hyperdoped silicon photodetectors operating in forward-biased photoconductive mode at 1550 nm. The ultrafast laser heating step is a fabrication process whose effect on dark current and responsivity is validated empirically through reported measurements, not through any derivation, equation, or prediction that reduces to its own inputs by construction. No self-definitional loops, fitted parameters renamed as predictions, or load-bearing self-citations appear in the provided text. The central claims rest on experimental data rather than a closed theoretical chain.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on standard semiconductor physics assumptions about bandgap engineering via hyperdoping and on experimental measurements of dark current and responsivity; no new free parameters, axioms, or invented entities are introduced beyond established hyperdoping techniques.

axioms (1)

domain assumption Hyperdoping silicon beyond solid solubility limit creates sub-bandgap states enabling 1550 nm absorption
Invoked in the opening of the abstract as the basis for extending silicon detection beyond 1100 nm.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5827 in / 1341 out tokens · 38134 ms · 2026-05-22T03:51:04.864428+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Lean theorems connected to this paper

Citations machine-checked in the Pith Canon. Every link opens the source theorem in the public Lean library.

IndisputableMonolith/Cost/FunctionalEquation.lean washburn_uniqueness_aczel unclear

?

unclear
Relation between the paper passage and the cited Recognition theorem.

By integrating an ultrafast laser heating process step to reduce the dark current while keeping high responsivity, we achieve a specific detectivity D* exceeding 10^9 Jones for 1550 nm at room temperature working in a forward-biased, photoconductive mode.
IndisputableMonolith/Foundation/AlexanderDuality.lean alexander_duality_circle_linking unclear

?

unclear
Relation between the paper passage and the cited Recognition theorem.

The improved detectivity, coupled with a 59.4 dB linear dynamic range and kHz-scale bandwidth, allows us to demonstrate a single-pixel imaging system...

What do these tags mean?

matches: The paper's claim is directly supported by a theorem in the formal canon.
supports: The theorem supports part of the paper's argument, but the paper may add assumptions or extra steps.
extends: The paper goes beyond the formal theorem; the theorem is a base layer rather than the whole result.
uses: The paper appears to rely on the theorem as machinery.
contradicts: The paper's claim conflicts with a theorem or certificate in the canon.
unclear: Pith found a possible connection, but the passage is too broad, indirect, or ambiguous to say the theorem truly supports the claim.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

27 extracted references · 27 canonical work pages

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Berencén, Y. et al. A high-performance all-silicon photodetector enabling telecom-wavelength detection at room temperature. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5623025/v1 (2025)

work page doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5623025/v1 2025
[2]

Wang, M. et al. Silicon‐Based Intermediate ‐Band Infrared Photodetector Realized by Te Hyperdoping. Adv. Opt. Mater. 9, (2021)

work page 2021
[3]

Li, C. et al. Record-Breaking-High-Responsivity Silicon Photodetector at Infrared 1.31 and 1.55 μ m by Argon Doping Technique. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 70, 2364–2369 (2023)

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García-Hemme, E. et al. Room-temperature operation of a titanium supersaturated silicon-based infrared photodetector. Appl. Phys. Lett. 104, (2014)

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[5]

Berencén, Y. et al. Room-temperature short-wavelength infrared Si photodetector. Sci. Rep. 7, 43688 (2017)

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Li, P., Zhang, X., Chen, S., Yu, L. & Feng, S. Investigation of Ti-DLC film for the near infrared photodetector. Diam. Relat. Mater. 140, 110478 (2023)

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[7]

Yu, Z. et al. Direct growth of graphene on hyper-doped silicon to enhance carrier transport for infrared photodetection. Nanotechnology 35, 115703 (2024)

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[8]

Zhu, J. -J. et al. Enhancing the sub -bandgap photo -response of silicon by inert element co - hyperdoping. Opt. Lett. 50, 367 (2025)

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Huang, S. et al. Black Silicon Photodetector with Excellent Comprehensive Properties by Rapid Thermal Annealing and Hydrogenated Surface Passivation.Adv. Opt. Mater.8, 1901808 (2020)

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Mailoa, J. P. et al. Room-temperature sub -band gap optoelectronic response of hyperdoped silicon. Nat. Commun. 5, 3011 (2014)

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Jia, Z. et al. Highly responsive tellurium -hyperdoped black silicon photodiode with single - crystalline and uniform surface microstructure. Opt. Express 28, 5239 (2020). 12

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Qiu, X., Wang, Z., Hou, X., Yu, X. & Yang, D. Visible -blind short -wavelength infrared photodetector with high responsivity based on hyperdoped silicon.Photonics Res.7, 351 (2019)

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Zhang, K. et al. Extended infrared responses in Er/O-hyperdoped Si at room temperature. Opt. Lett. 46, 5165 (2021)

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& Yang, D

Wang, Z., Yu, X., Qiu, X., Fu, J. & Yang, D. High -responsivity graphene/hyperdoped-silicon heterostructure infrared photodetectors. Opt. Laser Technol. 153, 108291 (2022)

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Khaleghi, S. S. M. et al. High Pixel Resolution Visible to Extended Shortwave Infrared Single Pixel Imaging with a black Phosphorus-Molybdenum disulfide (bP-MoS2) photodiode. (2025)

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(Elsevier, 1979)

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[17]

Paulus, S. et al. Defect engineering for improved thermal stability of sulfur hyperdoped silicon. Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 176, 108297 (2024)

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Paulus, S. et al. Classification of different post -hyperdoping treatments for enhanced crystallinity of IR -sensitive femtosecond-laser processed silicon. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 38, 024002 (2023)

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Mc Kearney, P. et al. Ultrafast laser heating for controlling the optoelectronic properties of sulfur hyperdoped black silicon. J. Appl. Phys. 133, (2023)

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[20]

Warrender, J. M. Laser hyperdoping silicon for enhanced infrared optoelectronic properties. Appl. Phys. Rev. 3, 031104 (2016)

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Simmons, C. B. et al. Deactivation of metastable single-crystal silicon hyperdoped with sulfur. J. Appl. Phys. 114, (2013)

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Janzén, E., Stedman, R., Grossmann, G. & Grimmeiss, H. G. High-resolution studies of sulfur- and selenium-related donor centers in silicon. Phys. Rev. B 29, 1907–1918 (1984)

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Limaye, M. V. et al. Understanding of sub -band gap absorption of femtosecond -laser sulfur hyperdoped silicon using synchrotron-based techniques. Sci. Rep. 5, 11466 (2015)

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Sun, J. et al. A prototype study of the POLAR front -end electronics. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A 659, 322–327 (2011)

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The use of fast Fourier transform for the estimation of power spectra: A method based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms

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Wang, F., Zhang, T., Xie, R., Wang, Z. & Hu, W. How to characterize figures of merit of two - dimensional photodetectors. Nat. Commun. 14, 2224 (2023)

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[1] [1]

Berencén, Y. et al. A high-performance all-silicon photodetector enabling telecom-wavelength detection at room temperature. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5623025/v1 (2025)

work page doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5623025/v1 2025

[2] [2]

Wang, M. et al. Silicon‐Based Intermediate ‐Band Infrared Photodetector Realized by Te Hyperdoping. Adv. Opt. Mater. 9, (2021)

work page 2021

[3] [3]

Li, C. et al. Record-Breaking-High-Responsivity Silicon Photodetector at Infrared 1.31 and 1.55 μ m by Argon Doping Technique. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 70, 2364–2369 (2023)

work page 2023

[4] [4]

García-Hemme, E. et al. Room-temperature operation of a titanium supersaturated silicon-based infrared photodetector. Appl. Phys. Lett. 104, (2014)

work page 2014

[5] [5]

Berencén, Y. et al. Room-temperature short-wavelength infrared Si photodetector. Sci. Rep. 7, 43688 (2017)

work page 2017

[6] [6]

& Feng, S

Li, P., Zhang, X., Chen, S., Yu, L. & Feng, S. Investigation of Ti-DLC film for the near infrared photodetector. Diam. Relat. Mater. 140, 110478 (2023)

work page 2023

[7] [7]

Yu, Z. et al. Direct growth of graphene on hyper-doped silicon to enhance carrier transport for infrared photodetection. Nanotechnology 35, 115703 (2024)

work page 2024

[8] [8]

Zhu, J. -J. et al. Enhancing the sub -bandgap photo -response of silicon by inert element co - hyperdoping. Opt. Lett. 50, 367 (2025)

work page 2025

[9] [9]

Huang, S. et al. Black Silicon Photodetector with Excellent Comprehensive Properties by Rapid Thermal Annealing and Hydrogenated Surface Passivation.Adv. Opt. Mater.8, 1901808 (2020)

work page 2020

[10] [10]

Mailoa, J. P. et al. Room-temperature sub -band gap optoelectronic response of hyperdoped silicon. Nat. Commun. 5, 3011 (2014)

work page 2014

[11] [11]

Jia, Z. et al. Highly responsive tellurium -hyperdoped black silicon photodiode with single - crystalline and uniform surface microstructure. Opt. Express 28, 5239 (2020). 12

work page 2020

[12] [12]

& Yang, D

Qiu, X., Wang, Z., Hou, X., Yu, X. & Yang, D. Visible -blind short -wavelength infrared photodetector with high responsivity based on hyperdoped silicon.Photonics Res.7, 351 (2019)

work page 2019

[13] [13]

Zhang, K. et al. Extended infrared responses in Er/O-hyperdoped Si at room temperature. Opt. Lett. 46, 5165 (2021)

work page 2021

[14] [14]

& Yang, D

Wang, Z., Yu, X., Qiu, X., Fu, J. & Yang, D. High -responsivity graphene/hyperdoped-silicon heterostructure infrared photodetectors. Opt. Laser Technol. 153, 108291 (2022)

work page 2022

[15] [15]

Khaleghi, S. S. M. et al. High Pixel Resolution Visible to Extended Shortwave Infrared Single Pixel Imaging with a black Phosphorus-Molybdenum disulfide (bP-MoS2) photodiode. (2025)

work page 2025

[16] [16]

(Elsevier, 1979)

Hadamard Transform Optics. (Elsevier, 1979). doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-330050-8.X5001-X

work page doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-330050-8.x5001-x 1979

[17] [17]

Paulus, S. et al. Defect engineering for improved thermal stability of sulfur hyperdoped silicon. Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 176, 108297 (2024)

work page 2024

[18] [18]

Paulus, S. et al. Classification of different post -hyperdoping treatments for enhanced crystallinity of IR -sensitive femtosecond-laser processed silicon. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 38, 024002 (2023)

work page 2023

[19] [19]

Mc Kearney, P. et al. Ultrafast laser heating for controlling the optoelectronic properties of sulfur hyperdoped black silicon. J. Appl. Phys. 133, (2023)

work page 2023

[20] [20]

Warrender, J. M. Laser hyperdoping silicon for enhanced infrared optoelectronic properties. Appl. Phys. Rev. 3, 031104 (2016)

work page 2016

[21] [21]

Simmons, C. B. et al. Deactivation of metastable single-crystal silicon hyperdoped with sulfur. J. Appl. Phys. 114, (2013)

work page 2013

[22] [22]

& Grimmeiss, H

Janzén, E., Stedman, R., Grossmann, G. & Grimmeiss, H. G. High-resolution studies of sulfur- and selenium-related donor centers in silicon. Phys. Rev. B 29, 1907–1918 (1984)

work page 1907

[23] [23]

Limaye, M. V. et al. Understanding of sub -band gap absorption of femtosecond -laser sulfur hyperdoped silicon using synchrotron-based techniques. Sci. Rep. 5, 11466 (2015)

work page 2015

[24] [24]

Pecunia, V. et al. Guidelines for accurate evaluation of photodetectors based on emerging semiconductor technologies. Nat. Photonics 19, 1178–1188 (2025)

work page 2025

[25] [25]

Sun, J. et al. A prototype study of the POLAR front -end electronics. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A 659, 322–327 (2011)

work page 2011

[26] [26]

The use of fast Fourier transform for the estimation of power spectra: A method based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms

Welch, P. The use of fast Fourier transform for the estimation of power spectra: A method based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms. IEEE Transactions on Audio and Electroacoustics 15, 70–73 (1967)

work page 1967

[27] [27]

Wang, F., Zhang, T., Xie, R., Wang, Z. & Hu, W. How to characterize figures of merit of two - dimensional photodetectors. Nat. Commun. 14, 2224 (2023)

work page 2023