X-ray emission maps and scaling relations in IllustrisTNG and MillenniumTNG: Differences between cluster and group regimes

Alex Saro; Facundo A. G\'omez; Franklin Ald\'as; R\"udiger Pakmor; Tiago Castro; Volker Springel

REVIEW 2 major objections 2 minor 300 references

X-ray emission maps and scaling relations in IllustrisTNG and MillenniumTNG: Differences between cluster and group regimes

T0 review · 2 major / 2 minor · reviewed 2026-06-26 · grok-4.3

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗

Pith's one-line read X-ray scaling relations for galaxy groups and clusters follow broken power laws that steepen below a pivot mass of 10^13.67 solar masses due to AGN feedback.

desk verdict The paper quantifies mass-dependent X-ray biases and a broken power-law break at group scales in TNG runs, but the low-mass steepening rests on an untested metallicity prescription. read the letter →

arxiv 2606.21495 v1 pith:H4TAIVNJ submitted 2026-06-19 astro-ph.GA

Franklin Aldás , Facundo A. Gómez , Volker Springel , Rüdiger Pakmor , Alex Saro , Tiago Castro This is my paper

classification astro-ph.GA

keywords X-rayscalingrelationsgalaxygroupsandclustersintraclustermediumAGNfeedbackhydrostaticmassbiasself-similarspectroscopictemperatureemissionmaps

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper constructs X-ray emission maps from cosmological simulations to trace how luminosity, gas mass, and temperature scale with total halo mass across the group-to-cluster range. It shows that these relations are best captured by broken power laws rather than single power laws, with slopes near self-similar values at high mass but significantly steeper below the pivot. The steepening is attributed to the increasing relative impact of AGN feedback in lower-mass systems. The same maps are used to measure systematic offsets between true masses and those recovered from X-ray hydrostatic equilibrium or spectroscopic fits, revealing a baseline 15 percent underestimate that grows mass-dependent once temperature modeling effects are included.

What carries the argument

Pipeline that converts simulation gas properties into X-ray emission maps and spectra via APEC cooling functions, using a metallicity-based prescription to approximate full spectral emission when individual abundances are not tracked.

What would settle it

A large observational catalog of groups and clusters with direct mass measurements around 10^13.5 solar masses that either confirms or rules out the reported steepening of the L_X--M_500 and T--M_500 relations below the pivot.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The simulated L_X--M_500, M_gas--M_500, and T--M_500 relations are best described by broken power laws with a pivot at M_500 = 10^13.67 M_sun; at high masses the slopes are close to self-similar while at lower masses they steepen significantly, reflecting the growing importance of AGN feedback. X-ray hydrostatic masses are systematically underestimated by 15 percent independently of mass; when spectroscopic effects are included the bias becomes mass-dependent, ranging from 15 percent at low masses to 21 percent at high masses.

Load-bearing premise

The metallicity-based prescription accurately reproduces the full spectral emission for simulations that lack individual chemical abundance tracking.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

Slopes of the scaling relations approach self-similar expectations only above the pivot mass and deviate strongly below it.
X-ray hydrostatic masses are underestimated by 15 percent across the full mass range studied.
Including spectroscopic temperature modeling makes the mass bias increase from 15 percent at low mass to 21 percent at high mass.
Recovered X-ray luminosity within the 0.15--1 R_500 aperture is underestimated by up to 33 percent in low-mass systems and 18 percent in high-mass systems.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

The identified pivot mass offers a quantitative target for testing how strongly AGN feedback is implemented in other simulation suites.
Mass-dependent corrections derived here could be applied to existing X-ray cluster catalogs to reduce systematic errors in cosmological analyses.
The same emission maps could be used to predict biases in other observables such as Sunyaev-Zeldovich signals or weak-lensing masses for the same objects.
If the break is driven by feedback, multi-wavelength observations of groups should show corresponding changes in gas entropy profiles or star-formation rates.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

The main thing to know is that the scaling relations come out as broken power laws with a pivot near 10^13.67 solar masses. Above that the slopes sit close to self-similar; below it they steepen, which the authors tie to AGN feedback. They also report X-ray hydrostatic masses underestimated by 15 percent, rising to 21 percent once spectroscopic effects are folded in, plus aperture-dependent luminosity biases up to 33 percent at low mass.

They did the practical work of building a pipeline that turns simulation gas cells into X-ray maps and spectra using APEC, and they added a metallicity prescription for runs that skip full chemical tracking. The overall match to observed relations looks reasonable, and the synthetic observation step lets them measure the biases directly rather than just quoting them.

The soft spot is the metallicity prescription itself. The abstract states it reproduces full spectral emission, yet the text gives no direct comparison against the TNG300 run that does track individual abundances. If the prescription misses line or continuum strength in the 0.5-2 keV band for cooler, lower-metallicity groups, both the location of the pivot and the low-mass slopes shift. That makes the AGN-feedback explanation for the steepening only as solid as this modeling choice.

The rest of the analysis follows standard methods and the citation list covers the usual simulation and observation papers. This is aimed at people who calibrate feedback or use X-ray clusters for cosmology; the bias numbers are the part that could actually get used.

I would send it to peer review. The quantification is concrete and the simulations are large enough to matter, even if the prescription needs a robustness check in revision.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript introduces a pipeline to generate X-ray emission maps and spectra from IllustrisTNG300 and MillenniumTNG simulations using APEC cooling functions. For runs without per-element abundances it substitutes a metallicity-based prescription asserted to reproduce full spectral emission. Scaling relations L_X-M_500, M_gas-M_500 and T-M_500 are measured over 10^12.5 to 10^15.5 M_sun and reported as broken power laws with pivot at M_500 = 10^13.67 M_sun; high-mass slopes are near self-similar while low-mass slopes steepen, attributed to AGN feedback. Synthetic X-ray analyses yield a mass-independent 15% hydrostatic mass underestimate that becomes mass-dependent (15-21%) once spectroscopic effects are included, with additional mass-dependent biases in recovered luminosity.

Significance. If the results hold, the work supplies a useful pipeline and quantifies the group-to-cluster transition in scaling relations together with hydrostatic and spectroscopic biases, both of which are directly relevant to observational mass calibration. The synthetic bias analyses constitute a concrete strength; the broad mass baseline and direct comparison to observations add further value.

major comments (2)

[Abstract and methods] Abstract (paragraph on APEC cooling functions) and methods: the claim that the metallicity-based prescription 'accurately reproduces the full spectral emission' is load-bearing for the reported low-mass steepening in L_X-M_500 and T-M_500 and for the mass dependence of the spectroscopic bias, yet the manuscript provides no quantitative validation against a simulation that tracks individual abundances (e.g., direct comparison to TNG300).
[Results on scaling relations] Results section on scaling relations: the location of the pivot mass (10^13.67 M_sun) and the low-mass slopes are presented as robust findings, but both quantities rest on the untested substitution; an explicit sensitivity test is required before the deviation-from-self-similarity conclusion can be considered secure.

minor comments (2)

[Figures and tables] Add explicit uncertainty estimates or bootstrap errors to the fitted slopes and pivot mass in the scaling-relation figures and tables.
[Methods] Clarify in the text which simulation (TNG300 or MillenniumTNG) employs the metallicity prescription and which uses full abundances.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their careful reading of the manuscript and for highlighting the importance of validating the metallicity-based prescription. We address each major comment below.

read point-by-point responses

Referee: [Abstract and methods] Abstract (paragraph on APEC cooling functions) and methods: the claim that the metallicity-based prescription 'accurately reproduces the full spectral emission' is load-bearing for the reported low-mass steepening in L_X-M_500 and T-M_500 and for the mass dependence of the spectroscopic bias, yet the manuscript provides no quantitative validation against a simulation that tracks individual abundances (e.g., direct comparison to TNG300).

Authors: We agree that the manuscript does not currently contain a direct quantitative validation of the metallicity-based prescription against TNG300's full per-element abundance tracking. While the prescription follows common approximations used in the literature for simulations lacking detailed chemistry, the absence of an explicit test means the claim of accurate reproduction is not demonstrated in the current text. We will add a validation comparison (e.g., applying the prescription to a TNG300 subsample and comparing emission measures and spectra to the full-abundance case) in a revised methods section or appendix. revision: yes
Referee: [Results on scaling relations] Results section on scaling relations: the location of the pivot mass (10^13.67 M_sun) and the low-mass slopes are presented as robust findings, but both quantities rest on the untested substitution; an explicit sensitivity test is required before the deviation-from-self-similarity conclusion can be considered secure.

Authors: We accept that the reported pivot mass and the steepening of the low-mass slopes rely on the prescription without a shown sensitivity analysis. To secure the deviation-from-self-similarity result, we will perform and present an explicit sensitivity test in the revised results section. This will include re-deriving the scaling relations on TNG300 using both the full abundances and the metallicity prescription, as well as testing variations in the assumed abundance ratios, to confirm that the broken-power-law form and pivot location remain stable. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity; scaling relations measured directly from simulation outputs

full rationale

The paper computes L_X, M_gas, and T directly from the TNG300 and MillenniumTNG gas cells via an APEC-based pipeline. The metallicity prescription is introduced as an auxiliary modeling step for runs lacking per-element abundances and is asserted to reproduce spectra, but the central results (broken power-law fits with pivot at 10^13.67 M_sun and mass-dependent biases) are obtained by applying the pipeline to the simulation data and fitting the resulting relations. No equation reduces the reported slopes or pivot mass to a fitted input by construction, no self-citation chain supplies a uniqueness theorem, and no ansatz is smuggled in. The derivation chain is therefore self-contained against the simulation snapshots.

Assumptions & free parameters 0 free parameters · 2 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on the validity of the APEC cooling functions, the accuracy of the introduced metallicity prescription for non-tracked abundances, and the assumption that the simulated AGN feedback produces realistic low-mass behavior. No free parameters are explicitly fitted in the abstract, but the prescription itself functions as an ad-hoc mapping.

assumptions (2)

domain assumption APEC cooling functions accurately describe the X-ray emission from the simulated gas
Invoked when constructing emission maps and spectra from the simulation outputs.
ad hoc to paper The metallicity-based prescription reproduces the full spectral emission for simulations without individual chemical abundances
Explicitly introduced in the abstract as a new method.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of X-ray emission maps and scaling relations in IllustrisTNG and MillenniumTNG: Differences between cluster and group regimes." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/H4TAIVNJ

@misc{pith2026260621495,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: X-ray emission maps and scaling relations in IllustrisTNG and MillenniumTNG: Differences between cluster and group regimes},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/H4TAIVNJ}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2606.21495}
}

abstract

X-ray observations are a primary probe of the intracluster medium, widely used to infer galaxy cluster masses and scaling relations. We present and validate a pipeline to generate X-ray emission maps of galaxy groups and clusters from large cosmological simulations, and use it to study the origin of deviations from self-similarity across the group-to-cluster transition. We apply this pipeline to the Illustris-TNG300 and MillenniumTNG simulations, constructing \mbox{X-ray} emission maps and spectra based on APEC cooling functions. For simulations that do not explicitly track individual chemical abundances, we introduce a metallicity-based prescription that accurately reproduces the full spectral emission. We derive the $L_{\mathrm{X}}$--$M_{500}$, $M_{\mathrm{gas}}$--$M_{500}$, and $T$--$M_{500}$ scaling relations over $10^{12.5} \leq M_{500} \leq 10^{15.5}\,\mathrm{M}_\odot$, compare them with observational data, and quantify the hydrostatic equilibrium and spectroscopic temperature biases through synthetic X-ray analyses. The simulated scaling relations are in good overall agreement with observations and are best described by broken power laws with a pivot at $M_{500}=10^{13.67}\,\mathrm{M}_\odot$. At high masses, the slopes are close to self-similar expectations; at lower masses the relations steepen significantly, reflecting the growing importance of AGN feedback. X-ray hydrostatic masses are systematically underestimated by $15\%$, independently of cluster mass. When spectroscopic effects are included, the bias becomes mass-dependent, ranging from $15\%$ at low masses to $21\%$ at high masses. The recovered X-ray luminosity, measured in the $0.15$--$1\,R_{500}$ aperture, is also mass-dependent: high-mass clusters are underestimated by $18\%$, while low-mass systems show discrepancies of up to $33\%$, driven by single-temperature spectral modelling of the gas outside the core.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.21495 by the authors.

**Figure 1.** Comparison of X-ray spectra at log(T) = 7.80 K. The spectrum computed using pyatomdb (blue) is compared with that obtained as a linear combination of individual elemental spectra weighted by their abundances (red). At this temperature, which coincides exactly with a grid point, the two spectra are in excellent agreement, validating the spectral interpolation scheme. at z = 0, all while maintaining a mass resolution… view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** Comparison of X-ray spectra at log(T) = 7.81 K, corresponding to the maximum interpolation distance in the temperature grid adopted in this work. The upper panel shows the spectrum computed using pyatomdb (blue) alongside that obtained from the weighted linear combination of elemental spectra (red). The lower panel displays the residuals between the two spectra. Minor differences are visible in the intensities o… view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** Maps of mass-weighted temperature (left), emission measure (centre), and soft-band X-ray luminosity in the 0 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_3.png] view at source ↗

Figures from the paper (8 more)

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: Soft-band (0.5–2.0 keV) X-ray luminosity L500 as a function of halo mass M500 for the TNG300 (blue) and MTNG (cyan) simulations, compared with observational data from the literature. Data points represent the geometric mean luminosity in logarithmically spaced mass b…

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: Gas mass Mgas,500 as a function of total halo mass M500 for the TNG300 (blue) and MTNG (cyan) simulations, compared with observational data. Both M500 and Mgas,500 are computed by summing the masses of all particles and of gas particles, respectively, enclosed withi…

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: presents the scaling relation between the massweighted temperature and the cluster mass M500. When compared to observational data, there is a slight underprediction of Article number, page 8 of 18 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_6.png]

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: Comparison between the true halo mass M500,true, defined as the sum of all particle masses within R500, and the hydrostatic equilibrium mass M500,profile inferred from 3D density and temperature profiles extracted directly from the simulation, excluding the central r…

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: Comparison between the true halo mass M500,true and the spectroscopic mass M500,spec derived from the mock X-ray analysis pipeline, excluding the central cluster region (R < 0.15 R500). The one-to-one relation is shown by the dashed line. Unlike the profile-based hydr…

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: Comparison between the true X-ray luminosity [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_9.png]

**Figure 10.** Figure 10: Comparison of the M500–L500 scaling relation derived from two different definitions of the underlying quantities, both excluding the central cluster region (R < 0.15 R500). Green points show the simulation-based relation (M500,true, L500,true), in which both quantitie…

**Figure 11.** Figure 11: Evolution of the soft-band (0.5–2.0 keV) X-ray luminosity–mass scaling relation L500–M500 at redshifts z = 0, 0.5, and 1, derived from the TNG300 and MTNG simulations. At the high-mass end (M500 ≳ 1014 M⊙), the three relations overlap, consistent with the self-similar…

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Pith tools

Reviewed June 26, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.

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