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arxiv: 2606.30199 · v1 · pith:TDASENFKnew · submitted 2026-06-29 · ⚛️ physics.optics · physics.ins-det

Arduino based interferometer stabilizer equipped with a digital lock-in amplifier

Giuseppe Emanuele Lio , Saravanan Rajamani , Alessandro Pitanti , Stefano Roddaro , Simone Zanotto This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-30 04:54 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ⚛️ physics.optics physics.ins-det
keywords interferometer stabilizationdigital lock-in amplifierArduino microcontrollerPID feedback controlthermal drift suppressionopen-source hardwareprecision metrologylaser frequency stabilization
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The pith

An Arduino microcontroller stabilizes interferometers by running a 100 kHz digital lock-in amplifier and PID feedback in firmware.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

This paper describes the design of a compact, low-cost stabilization system for interferometric sensors built around the dual-core Arduino Giga R1. It implements a custom analog front-end together with a firmware digital lock-in amplifier that performs real-time demodulation and PID control at 100 kHz sampling. The central aim is to keep the interferometer locked at the quadrature point so that environmental noise and thermal drift no longer limit sensitivity. A sympathetic reader would care because the approach replaces expensive analog lock-in amplifiers or FPGA boards with an open-source, standalone microcontroller solution suitable for research and teaching labs. Characterization experiments show the device suppresses long-term drift and actively counters external perturbations.

Core claim

The Arduino-based system with its firmware digital lock-in amplifier at 100 kHz sampling rate performs real-time demodulation and PID feedback to suppress long-term thermal drift and reject external perturbations in interferometric setups, providing a standalone alternative for laser frequency stabilization.

What carries the argument

Firmware-based digital lock-in amplifier on the dual-core Arduino Giga R1 that handles real-time demodulation and PID feedback control at 100 kHz sampling rate.

Load-bearing premise

The dual-core Arduino Giga R1 can execute the digital lock-in amplifier firmware at 100 kHz sampling rate for real-time demodulation and PID feedback without latency issues that would impair stabilization performance.

What would settle it

A side-by-side test in which an interferometer stabilized by this Arduino system shows the same residual thermal drift or perturbation response as an unstabilized reference over several hours would falsify the suppression claim.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.30199 by Alessandro Pitanti, Giuseppe Emanuele Lio, Saravanan Rajamani, Simone Zanotto, Stefano Roddaro.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: FIG. 1. Principles of interferometer stabilization at the linear working point. Since the setup-intrinsic optical path difference [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: FIG. 2. Experimental implementation of the active stabilization system. (a) detailed block diagram of the electronic control loop and of the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: FIG. 3. Code fragment from the lock-in firmware. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p006_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: FIG. 4. Flowchart of the firmware control algorithm. The system operates on a time-sliced super-loop architecture to ensure deterministic [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: FIG. 5. A screenshot of the custom-developed Python Graphical User Interface (GUI), which acts as a high-level supervisor for the Arduino [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: FIG. 6. Testing the optical phase estimation protocol. Panels (a) and (b) illustrate the lock-in variables collected while the reference mirror is [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: FIG. 7. Closed-loop performance and disturbance rejection. (a) Stabilization against spontaneous (thermal) drift. The plot displays the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: FIG. 8. Schematics of the analog filters implemented on the stabilizer board. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: FIG. 9. Flowchart of the secondary function recalled in the main firmware. The OnDemand functions are the ones that can be recalled by [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_9.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: FIG. 10. GUI interface showing the calibration procedure. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p014_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: FIG. 11. GUI interface showing the Monitor reporting the two DC channels (V+ and V-) and the live plot of the AC channel (an integrated [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p014_11.png] view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: FIG. 12. Experimental characterization of the digital lock-in amplifier dynamics. a) Signal evolution for the nominal filter coefficient [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_12.png] view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: FIG. 13. Web application directly hosted on GitHub web page. The example shows the calibration process. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_13.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Interferometric sensors are ubiquitous in precision metrology, yet their performance is fundamentally limited by environmental noise and thermal drift. To achieve maximum sensitivity, these systems must be actively stabilized at the quadrature point of the interference fringe. Commercial stabilization solutions, typically based on analog lock-in amplifiers or FPGA architectures, are often prohibitively expensive and do not not offer the flexibility needed for custom experimental setups. In this work, we present an open-source, compact and low-cost digital stabilization system built upon the dual-core Arduino Giga R1 microcontroller. The system features a custom analog front-end with programmable gain amplifiers (PGAs) and active signal conditioning, enabling direct integration with standard amplified photodiodes. We implement a firmware-based digital lock-in amplifier running at a 100 kHz sampling rate, which performs real-time demodulation and PID feedback control without the latency bottlenecks of PC-based loops. Experimental characterization demonstrates that the system effectively suppresses long-term thermal drift and actively rejects external perturbations. The resulting device provides a standalone, Arduino-based alternative for laser frequency stabilization and interferometric control in educational and research laboratories.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 1 minor

Summary. The manuscript describes the design of an open-source, low-cost interferometer stabilizer based on the dual-core Arduino Giga R1 microcontroller. It includes a custom analog front-end with programmable gain amplifiers, a firmware-based digital lock-in amplifier operating at 100 kHz sampling rate for real-time demodulation, and PID feedback control. The central claim is that experimental characterization shows the system suppresses long-term thermal drift and rejects external perturbations, providing a standalone alternative to commercial analog or FPGA-based solutions for laser frequency stabilization and interferometric control.

Significance. If the performance claims hold with supporting data, the work would offer a practical, accessible tool for precision metrology in educational and research settings, leveraging open-source hardware to reduce costs and increase flexibility compared to commercial lock-in amplifiers.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: The assertion that 'Experimental characterization demonstrates that the system effectively suppresses long-term thermal drift and actively rejects external perturbations' is unsupported by any quantitative results, figures, error bars, time-series data, or exclusion criteria. This is load-bearing for the central claim of effectiveness and prevents evaluation of the stated performance.
  2. [System description] System description (firmware section): The claim that the digital lock-in amplifier at 100 kHz sampling rate on the STM32H747 performs real-time demodulation and PID feedback 'without the latency bottlenecks of PC-based loops' is asserted without timing benchmarks, latency measurements, or CPU utilization data to confirm real-time operation under load.
minor comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: Typo 'do not not offer' should be corrected to 'do not offer'.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive comments, which help strengthen the manuscript. We address each major point below and will revise the manuscript to incorporate supporting data where the claims require it.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The assertion that 'Experimental characterization demonstrates that the system effectively suppresses long-term thermal drift and actively rejects external perturbations' is unsupported by any quantitative results, figures, error bars, time-series data, or exclusion criteria. This is load-bearing for the central claim of effectiveness and prevents evaluation of the stated performance.

    Authors: We agree that the abstract assertion requires explicit quantitative backing to be fully supported. The revised manuscript will update the abstract to reference the specific experimental results in Section 4 (including time-series plots, RMS values, and error bars) that demonstrate drift suppression and perturbation rejection. We will also ensure the main text includes all requested details on data collection criteria. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [System description] System description (firmware section): The claim that the digital lock-in amplifier at 100 kHz sampling rate on the STM32H747 performs real-time demodulation and PID feedback 'without the latency bottlenecks of PC-based loops' is asserted without timing benchmarks, latency measurements, or CPU utilization data to confirm real-time operation under load.

    Authors: We acknowledge that the real-time performance claim would be strengthened by direct measurements. In the revised firmware section we will add timing benchmarks (e.g., measured loop latency via oscilloscope), CPU utilization figures under full 100 kHz operation, and a comparison to typical PC-based loop latencies to substantiate the statement. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; hardware/firmware description with no derivations

full rationale

The paper is a hardware and firmware description of an Arduino-based stabilizer, relying on experimental characterization for its claims rather than any mathematical derivations, equations, or parameter fits. No load-bearing steps reduce by construction to inputs, and there are no self-citations or uniqueness theorems invoked. The central assertions about drift suppression and firmware performance at 100 kHz are presented as direct experimental and hardware facts without circular reduction.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the functional performance of standard microcontroller capabilities and custom electronics whose details are not supplied; no free parameters or invented entities are evident from the abstract.

axioms (2)
  • domain assumption The dual-core Arduino Giga R1 microcontroller can sustain real-time 100 kHz digital lock-in demodulation and PID control without latency issues
    Invoked in the abstract description of the firmware implementation.
  • domain assumption The custom analog front-end with PGAs integrates directly with standard amplified photodiodes for signal conditioning
    Stated as enabling feature in the system architecture.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5731 in / 1048 out tokens · 40869 ms · 2026-06-30T04:54:56.190531+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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