Pith. sign in

REVIEW 2 major objections 5 minor 109 references

The MIRI Early Obscured-AGN Wide Survey (MEOW): A Population of Hidden AGN at $z \gtrsim 5$ Revealed by JWST/MIRI Imaging

T0 review · 2 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-07-12 · grok-4.5

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗ Review JSON

Pith's one-line read JWST/MIRI imaging uncovers a population of dust-obscured AGN at z≳5 whose number densities match those of broad-line AGN, showing that hidden growth is a major channel for early black holes.

desk verdict Solid new MIRI sample of high-z obscured AGN with a usable bolometric LF; model-dependent f_AGN cuts are the main caveat but do not sink the result. read the letter →

arxiv 2607.02666 v1 pith:EY3UAKWS submitted 2026-07-02 astro-ph.GA

Gene C. K. Leung , Anna-Christina Eilers , Ryan Endsley , Steven L. Finkelstein , Micaela B. Bagley , Guillermo Barro , Anton M. Koekemoer , Pablo G. Pérez-González
show 20 more authors
Nor Pirzkal Bren E. Backhaus Teodora-Elena Bulichi Jaclyn B. Champagne Katherine Chworowsky Nikko J. Cleri Mark Dickinson Xiaohui Fan Seiji Fujimoto Norman A. Grogin Allison Kirkpatrick Dale D. Kocevski Vasily Kokorev Rebecca L. Larson Ray A. Lucas Fabio Pacucci Casey Papovich Anthony J. Taylor Natalia C. Villanueva Guang Yang
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.GA
keywords activegalacticnucleihigh-redshiftgalaxiessupermassiveblackholesJWST/MIRIobscuredAGNbolometricluminosityfunctionlittlereddots
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

Early supermassive black holes must grow rapidly, yet short observed quasar lifetimes and high dust columns suggest most of that growth is hidden. This paper presents MEOW, a wide JWST/MIRI imaging survey of the GOODS fields in the 10 and 21 micron filters, designed to catch the hot dust that surrounds accreting black holes even when optical and X-ray light is blocked. Combining the new mid-infrared photometry with existing HST, NIRCam and submillimeter data, the authors isolate 16 AGN at redshifts 4.5–7.2, twelve of them previously unknown and at least five of them narrow-line (Type II) systems invisible to broad-line spectroscopy. Their bolometric luminosity function at z=4.5–6 has number densities comparable to those of broad-line AGN and little red dots, implying that the obscured population is not a small minority but a major part of the early AGN census. The hosts show a range of dust content, pointing to both circumnuclear and galaxy-scale obscuration. The result establishes mid-infrared imaging as essential, alongside spectroscopy, for a complete accounting of how the first black holes assembled their mass.

What carries the argument

The Bayesian AGN fraction f_AGN measured from CIGALE SED fits that include the skirtor2016 clumpy torus; sources with f_AGN≥0.5 are classified as pure AGN and 0.1≤f_AGN<0.5 as composites, and this fraction, together with the MIRI F1000W/F2100W photometry that samples rest-frame hot-dust emission, selects the sample and supplies the bolometric luminosities used for the luminosity function.

What would settle it

A deeper multi-band MIRI campaign that recovers the same sources with full 5–25 micron coverage and re-fits them with free inclination and alternative dust models, checking whether the high-f_AGN objects remain classified as AGN and whether the luminosity function stays comparable to the broad-line samples.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

A sample of 16 MIRI-selected AGN at z=4.5–7.2 (12 spectroscopically confirmed) yields a bolometric luminosity function at z=4.5–6 whose number densities are comparable to those of broad-line AGN and little red dots, demonstrating that dust-obscured systems contribute significantly to the total AGN population and therefore to early supermassive black hole growth.

Load-bearing premise

The division into pure AGN, composites and star-forming galaxies rests on thresholds in the model-derived AGN fraction f_AGN; if the torus templates or the fixed type-2 viewing angle systematically mis-assign the hot-dust luminosity, both the sample membership and the luminosity function change.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • Obscured accretion must be included in any complete census of z≳5 black-hole growth; broad-line samples alone undercount the population.
  • Multiple obscuration channels (circumnuclear torus and host-galaxy dust) operate at these redshifts, so unified torus models alone cannot explain the full Type II population.
  • MIRI imaging can separate little red dots that are weak in the mid-infrared from typical dust-obscured AGN that are bright at 10–21 microns.
  • Future deeper MIRI surveys will be required to test whether the same number-density match continues into the lower-luminosity regime where most little red dots reside.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the MIRI and broad-line populations remain largely distinct at fainter luminosities, the total black-hole accretion density at z~5 may be roughly double previous spectroscopic estimates.
  • The diversity of host E(B–V) among the narrow-line sources suggests that galaxy-scale dust fractions evolve with redshift and should be measurable with ALMA continuum maps of the same objects.
  • A joint MIRI-plus-NIRCam grism survey strategy could eliminate both the pre-selection bias of slit spectroscopy and the LRD incompleteness of pure MIRI selection.
Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

2 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper presents MEOW, a JWST/MIRI F1000W+F2100W imaging survey of 95 arcmin² in GOODS-N/S, and uses CIGALE SED fits (with HST, NIRCam, SCUBA-2) to identify 16 MIRI-selected AGN at z=4.5–7.2 (12 with spectroscopic redshifts), of which 12 are new and at least five are narrow-line. Completeness is estimated from source-injection tests and empirical stacked templates split by f_AGN; an MCMC bolometric luminosity function at z=4.5–6 (Table 4, Fig. 9) is reported to be comparable in number density to JWST broad-line AGN and LRD samples, supporting a substantial obscured contribution to early SMBH growth.

Significance. If the number densities hold under the stated SED assumptions, the work supplies a concrete mid-IR census of obscured (including Type II) AGN at z≳5 that is largely complementary to broad-line searches, with five spectroscopically confirmed narrow-line systems and a carefully constructed V_eff (Eqs. 1–2, Fig. 4). The survey design, dual-filter depths, spectroscopic confirmation rate, and MCMC LF with L_bol resampling are strengths that make the result a useful benchmark for multi-wavelength AGN censuses. Residual model dependence (fixed type-2 skirtor inclination, f_AGN thresholds) is typical of IR SED work and is already partially tested by color-color tracks (Fig. 5) and the narrow-line subsample.

major comments (2)
  1. §4.2.1 and Table 2: the skirtor viewing angle is fixed to type-2 only (θ_AGN=70°) and pure-AGN vs composite classification rests on Bayesian f_AGN cuts (≥0.5 / 0.1–0.5). Because L_bol and the LF (Table 4, Fig. 9) inherit these choices, a short sensitivity test (e.g., free inclination or alternate torus library, and LF recomputed for pure-AGN only vs f_AGN>0.1) is needed to show that the claimed comparability to BL/LRD densities is not driven by the fixed type-2 prior or the threshold placement.
  2. §5.5 / Fig. 9: the LF comparison to BL AGN and LRDs is central, yet bolometric corrections for BL samples and empirical LRD luminosities differ in method from the CIGALE accretion-power L_bol used here. The text should quantify (or bound) how much of the apparent agreement could arise from inconsistent L_bol definitions, especially given the paper’s own note that LRD luminosities may be overestimated by canonical corrections.
minor comments (5)
  1. §6.1: the non-overlap with the 15 SMILES z>4.5 candidates of Lyu et al. (2024) is useful; a one-sentence statement of how many of those sources fall below the MEOW F2100W completeness would help readers assess filter-set vs depth differences.
  2. Fig. 3 caption and §4.1.2: the text states 12 spectroscopic redshifts; ensure the figure legend and the count of objects inside the FRESCO Hα/[OIII] windows are fully consistent.
  3. Appendix B / Fig. 13: field-to-field LF panels are helpful; note explicitly whether the mild GOODS-N excess at L_bol≳10^46 is consistent with the known z≈5.2 overdensity cited in the text.
  4. Table 3: alternative IDs are valuable; a compact flag column for BL / NL / LRD status would make the sample easier to cross-match with Matthee, Zhang, and Greene et al.
  5. Minor typography: abstract and §1 use both z≳5 and z>6; keep a single convention. Check “phot-z” vs “photo-z” consistency in Fig. 3.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: sample selection, L_bol, and the bolometric LF are constructed from independent MIRI/NIRCam photometry, spectroscopy, and standard CIGALE SED fits rather than by definition or self-citation chain.

full rationale

The paper is an observational census. Redshifts come from photometric criteria plus FRESCO/JADES spectroscopy (Section 4.1). AGN identification uses CIGALE skirtor2016 fits with free f_AGN (Table 2, Section 4.2.1); classification thresholds (f_AGN ≥ 0.5 pure AGN, 0.1–0.5 composite) are adopted conventions following Yang et al. 2023a, not derived from the target LF. Bolometric luminosities are the CIGALE accretion-power outputs. Completeness (Section 4.2.2, Fig. 4) is empirical: median-stacked model SEDs of the sample itself, scaled by an L_bol–L_3µm relation and folded into V_eff via Eqs. 1–2. This is standard observational practice and does not force the number densities by construction; the LF (Table 4, Fig. 9, Section 5.5) is still N/V_eff with MCMC Poisson + L_bol resampling. Self-citations (Fei et al. 2026 for GNz7q, Yang et al. for CIGALE) supply ancillary modeling or software, not the load-bearing counts or densities. Color-color comparison to external Kirkpatrick templates (Fig. 5) and the five spectroscopically confirmed narrow-line objects provide independent corroboration that the MIRI excess is real. No step reduces a claimed prediction or first-principles result to its own inputs.

Assumptions & free parameters 4 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central LF and sample claims rest on standard cosmology, public multi-wavelength photometry, and a suite of CIGALE modules whose free parameters and fixed choices (type-2 inclination, energy balance, template libraries) are explicitly listed. No new physical entities are postulated; the classification thresholds are operational definitions fitted to the same data.

free parameters (4)
  • f_AGN grid and Bayesian posterior = 0.0-0.99 (grid); per-source posterior
    Discrete grid 0.0-0.99; Bayesian output used for classification and L_bol; directly controls sample membership and luminosity function.
  • E(B-V)_line (host attenuation) = 0-1.5
    Allowed 0-1.5; used both for energy balance and as proxy for host-scale obscuration discussion.
  • skirtor tau_9.7 and gamma (PDR fraction) = tau_9.7=3-11; gamma=0.01-0.9
    Discrete grids that set torus optical depth and dust emission shape; affect derived L_bol.
  • AGN/composite classification thresholds = 0.5 / 0.1
    f_AGN≥0.5 pure AGN, 0.1≤f_AGN<0.5 composite; chosen following Yang et al. 2023a and applied to define the sample used for the LF.
assumptions (4)
  • domain assumption Planck 2020 cosmology (H0=67.4, Om=0.315, OL=0.685)
    Used for all volumes, luminosities and redshifts (§1).
  • domain assumption Energy balance between attenuated starlight and galactic dust emission (CIGALE dl2014)
    Standard CIGALE assumption; if violated by AGN heating of host dust, L_bol attribution changes (§4.2.1).
  • domain assumption skirtor2016 clumpy torus models with viewing angle fixed to type-2 (theta=70°)
    Explicitly adopted; type-1 models discarded as degenerate with stellar light (§4.2.1).
  • domain assumption Hot-dust excess at rest-frame ≳2 µm is a reliable AGN signature separable from star-forming SEDs via f_AGN
    Core selection premise, supported by color-color comparison to Kirkpatrick templates but still model-dependent (§5.1, Fig. 5).

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of The MIRI Early Obscured-AGN Wide Survey (MEOW): A Population of Hidden AGN at $z \gtrsim 5$ Revealed by JWST/MIRI Imaging." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/EY3UAKWS

@misc{pith2026260702666,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: The MIRI Early Obscured-AGN Wide Survey (MEOW): A Population of Hidden AGN at $z \gtrsim 5$ Revealed by JWST/MIRI Imaging},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/EY3UAKWS}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2607.02666}
}
abstract

We present the MIRI Early Obscured-AGN Wide Survey (MEOW), a JWST/MIRI imaging survey designed to detect dust-obscured active galactic nuclei (AGN) across cosmic time, with a particular focus on the high-redshift universe at $z \gtrsim 5$. MEOW observes the GOODS-N and GOODS-S fields with 43 pointings covering 95 arcmin$^2$ with the F1000W and F2100W filters, reaching depths of 0.5 and 3.6 $\mu$Jy ($5\sigma$), respectively. Using spectral energy distribution (SED) modeling combining MEOW photometry with archival HST, JWST/NIRCam, and SCUBA-2 data, we identify a sample of 16 MIRI-selected AGN at $z = 4.5$--$7.2$ (12 spectroscopically confirmed), spanning bolometric luminosities of $L_{\rm bol} = 10^{44.6}$--$10^{46.4}$~erg~s$^{-1}$. Twelve of the 16 AGN are newly identified in this work, including at least five narrow-line AGN representing the obscured population to which broad-line spectroscopic searches are insensitive. Two broad-line AGN exhibit markedly different mid-infrared emission properties, consistent with one being a little red dot (LRD) and the other either a typical AGN or an LRD with unusually strong hot-dust emission. The MIRI-selected AGN bolometric luminosity function at $z = 4.5$--$6$ yields number densities comparable to those of broad-line AGN and LRDs, suggesting that obscured AGN contribute significantly to the total AGN census at these epochs. The narrow-line AGN reside in diverse host environments, with evidence for both circumnuclear and host-galaxy-scale obscuration, pointing to multiple physical mechanisms at work. These results establish JWST/MIRI imaging as an indispensable component of a multi-faceted approach to a complete census of early supermassive black hole growth.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2607.02666 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. The MEOW survey footprint in the GOODS-N (left) and GOODS-S fields. The MEOW MIRI imaging (red shaded region) is designed to coincide with the NIRCam imaging and grism coverage of the FRESCO survey (blue outline). Parts of the footprint is additionally covered by NIRCam imaging from JADES (orange outline). Existing MIRI imaging from SMILES (green outline and shaded region) spans the central region of the GOODS-S fie… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Detection completeness as a function of flux for the F1000W (green) and F2100W (purple) filters, measured from the simulation and recovery of point sources in the sci￾ence mosaics. The vertical dotted and dashed lines indicate the 50% completeness limit and 5σ depth for each filter, re￾spectively. covered by HST/WFC3 imaging, included in this cata￾log). As the MEOW footprint is designed around that of the FRESCO sur… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. The distribution of fAGN and redshift for the AGN sample at z ≳ 5. The orange and blue points denote ob￾jects where spectroscopic and photometric redshifts, respec￾tively, are available. Objects known to be BL AGN in prior studies are denoted with black outlines. The redshift ranges where Hα and [OIII] are covered by the FRESCO F444W grism spectra are shown by the green and purple shaded re￾gions, respectively. Spec… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (10 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Left: The detection completeness as a function of AGN bolometric luminosity for the AGN (top) and composite (bottom) sources at z = 4.5, 5.0, 5.5 and 6.5. Right: The effective volume for the AGN (blue) and composite (orange) sources in the z = 4.5–6 redshift bin. The b…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Left: The F1000W-F2100W vs. F444W-F1000W color-color diagram for the z ≳ 5 AGN sample. Each object is color-coded by their best-fit fAGN. We overplot the evolutionary tracks of AGN (black) and star-forming galaxy (gray) templates from A. Kirkpatrick et al. (2012) and A…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: SED, image cutouts and spectra of the five narrow-line AGN in our sample. The left panel of each object shows the observed MIRI photometry as red points with black outlines, HST, JWST/NIRCam and SCUBA-2 photometry as black points, and the 2σ upper limits for nondetecti…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Same as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_7.png]
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Same as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_8.png]
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: The bolometric luminosity function at z = 4.5 − 6. The orange points show the number density calculated from our sample, with 68% upper limits shown for luminosity bins with no detected objects. The unfilled circle denotes luminosity bins which are < 20% complete. Lumi…
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Distribution of the host E(B−V ) from our SED modeling. The top panel shows all the objects in our sam￾ple, while the bottom panel shows those with fAGN > 0.5. The blue filled histogram shows all the AGN, the green filled histogram the BL AGN, and the red filled histo…
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Venn diagram comparing the MIRI-selected AGN from this work and the BL AGN from J. Matthee et al. (2024) within our footprint. The MIRI-selected AGN are restricted to those with spectroscopic redshifts of 4.9 ≤ z ≤ 6.6, where the Hα falls within the FRESCO grism spect…
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Same as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p018_12.png]
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: The luminosity function at z = 4.5−6 for objects with fAGN > 0.1 (left) and fAGN > 0.5 (right). Number densities in the GOODS-N and GOODS-S fields are shown by the green and purple points, respectively. Field-to-field variation is generally small, with GOODS-N showing…

Discussion (0). Continue with ORCID to comment.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

109 extracted references · 1 linked inside Pith

  1. [1]

    2024, ApJ, 976, 224, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad7396

    Alberts, S., Lyu, J., Shivaei, I., et al. 2024, ApJ, 976, 224, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad7396

    doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad7396 2024

  2. [2]

    1993, ARA&A, 31, 473, doi: 10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.002353 Astropy Collaboration, Robitaille, T

    Antonucci, R. 1993, ARA&A, 31, 473, doi: 10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.002353 Astropy Collaboration, Robitaille, T. P., Tollerud, E. J., et al. 2013, A&A, 558, A33, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201322068 Astropy Collaboration, Price-Whelan, A. M., Sip˝ ocz, B. M., et al. 2018, AJ, 156, 123, doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/aabc4f Ba˜ nados, E., Venemans, B. P., Mazzucchel...

    doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.002353 1993

  3. [3]

    E., Kirkpatrick, A., Yang, G., et al

    Backhaus, B. E., Kirkpatrick, A., Yang, G., et al. 2025, AJ, 170, 300, doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/ae0cc4

    doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ae0cc4 2025

  4. [4]

    J., Cowie, L

    Barger, A. J., Cowie, L. L., Blair, A. H., & Jones, L. H. 2022, ApJ, 934, 56, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac67e7

    doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac67e7 2022

  5. [5]

    G., Kocevski, D

    Barro, G., P´ erez-Gonz´ alez, P. G., Kocevski, D. D., et al. 2026, ApJ, 997, 48, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae0704

    doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae0704 2026

  6. [6]

    1987, ApJ, 320, 537, doi: 10.1086/165571

    Barvainis, R. 1987, ApJ, 320, 537, doi: 10.1086/165571

    doi:10.1086/165571 1987

  7. [7]

    1996, A&AS, 117, 393, doi: 10.1051/aas:1996164

    Bertin, E., & Arnouts, S. 1996, A&AS, 117, 393, doi: 10.1051/aas:1996164

    doi:10.1051/aas:1996164 1996

  8. [8]

    2019, A&A, 622, A103, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201834156

    Boquien, M., Burgarella, D., Roehlly, Y., et al. 2019, A&A, 622, A103, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201834156

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834156 2019

Show all 109 references
  1. [9]

    B., van Dokkum, P

    Brammer, G. B., van Dokkum, P. G., & Coppi, P. 2008, ApJ, 686, 1503, doi: 10.1086/591786

    2008 doi

  2. [10]

    2003, ApJ, 596, 34, doi: 10.1086/377529

    Bromm, V., & Loeb, A. 2003, ApJ, 596, 34, doi: 10.1086/377529

    2003 doi

  3. [11]

    2003, MNRAS, 344, 1000, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06897.x

    Bruzual, G., & Charlot, S. 2003, MNRAS, 344, 1000, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06897.x

    2003 doi

  4. [12]

    Bulichi, T.-E., Leung, G. C. K., Eilers, A.-C., et al. 2026, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2603.22393, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2603.22393

    2026 doi

  5. [13]

    J., Cameron, A

    Bunker, A. J., Cameron, A. J., Curtis-Lake, E., et al. 2024, A&A, 690, A288, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202347094

    2024 doi

  6. [14]

    C., et al

    Calzetti, D., Armus, L., Bohlin, R. C., et al. 2000, ApJ, 533, 682, doi: 10.1086/308692

    2000 doi

  7. [15]

    A., Clayton, G

    Cardelli, J. A., Clayton, G. C., & Mathis, J. S. 1989, ApJ, 345, 245, doi: 10.1086/167900 20Leung et al

    1989 doi

  8. [16]

    2003, PASP, 115, 763, doi: 10.1086/376392

    Chabrier, G. 2003, PASP, 115, 763, doi: 10.1086/376392

    2003 doi

  9. [17]

    A., et al

    Covelo-Paz, A., Giovinazzo, E., Oesch, P. A., et al. 2025, A&A, 694, A178, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202452363

    2025 doi

  10. [18]

    L., Barger, A

    Cowie, L. L., Barger, A. J., Hsu, L.-Y., et al. 2017, ApJ, 837, 139, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa60bb

    2017 doi

  11. [19]

    L., Gonz´ alez-L´ opez, J., Barger, A

    Cowie, L. L., Gonz´ alez-L´ opez, J., Barger, A. J., et al. 2018, ApJ, 865, 106, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aadc63

    2018 doi

  12. [20]

    J., Bunker, A

    Curtis-Lake, E., Cameron, A. J., Bunker, A. J., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2510.01033, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2510.01033

    2025 doi arXiv

  13. [21]

    B., Hennawi, J

    Davies, F. B., Hennawi, J. F., & Eilers, A.-C. 2019, ApJL, 884, L19, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ab42e3

    2019 doi

  14. [22]

    2025, A&A, 704, A313, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202557164 D’Eugenio, F., Cameron, A

    Delvecchio, I., Daddi, E., Magnelli, B., et al. 2025, A&A, 704, A313, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202557164 D’Eugenio, F., Cameron, A. J., Scholtz, J., et al. 2025, ApJS, 277, 4, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ada148

    2025 doi

  15. [23]

    L., Koekemoer, A

    Donley, J. L., Koekemoer, A. M., Brusa, M., et al. 2012, ApJ, 748, 142, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/748/2/142

    2012 doi

  16. [24]

    T., Aniano, G., Krause, O., et al

    Draine, B. T., Aniano, G., Krause, O., et al. 2014, ApJ, 780, 172, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/780/2/172

    2014 doi

  17. [25]

    B., & Hennawi, J

    Eilers, A.-C., Davies, F. B., & Hennawi, J. F. 2018, ApJ, 864, 53, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aad4fd

    2018 doi

  18. [26]

    F., Davies, F

    Eilers, A.-C., Hennawi, J. F., Davies, F. B., & Simcoe, R. A. 2021, ApJ, 917, 38, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac0a76

    2021 doi

  19. [27]

    2024, ApJ, 974, 275, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad778b

    Eilers, A.-C., Mackenzie, R., Pizzati, E., et al. 2024, ApJ, 974, 275, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad778b

    2024 doi

  20. [28]

    J., Willott, C., Alberts, S., et al

    Eisenstein, D. J., Willott, C., Alberts, S., et al. 2026, ApJS, 283, 6, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ae3163

    2026 doi

  21. [29]

    P., Fan, X., et al

    Endsley, R., Stark, D. P., Fan, X., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 512, 4248, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac737

    2022 doi

  22. [30]

    Fabian, A. C. 2012, ARA&A, 50, 455, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-081811-125521

    2012 doi

  23. [31]

    Fan, X., Ba˜ nados, E., & Simcoe, R. A. 2023, ARA&A, 61, 373, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-052920-102455

    2023 doi

  24. [32]

    2026, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2602.12325, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2602.12325

    Fei, Q., Fujimoto, S., Brammer, G., et al. 2026, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2602.12325, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2602.12325

    2026 doi

  25. [33]

    L., Leung, G

    Finkelstein, S. L., Leung, G. C. K., Bagley, M. B., et al. 2024, ApJL, 969, L2, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ad4495

    2024 doi

  26. [34]

    W., Lang, D., & Goodman, J

    Foreman-Mackey, D., Hogg, D. W., Lang, D., & Goodman, J. 2013, PASP, 125, 306, doi: 10.1086/670067

    2013 doi

  27. [35]

    B., Watson, D., et al

    Fujimoto, S., Brammer, G. B., Watson, D., et al. 2022, Nature, 604, 261, doi: 10.1038/s41586-022-04454-1

    2022 doi

  28. [36]

    R., et al

    Fujimoto, S., Wang, B., Weaver, J. R., et al. 2024, ApJ, 977, 250, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad9027

    2024 doi

  29. [37]

    2013, ApJS, 206, 10, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/206/2/10

    Galametz, A., Grazian, A., Fontana, A., et al. 2013, ApJS, 206, 10, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/206/2/10

    2013 doi

  30. [38]

    C., Koekemoer, A

    Giavalisco, M., Ferguson, H. C., Koekemoer, A. M., et al. 2004, ApJL, 600, L93, doi: 10.1086/379232

    2004 doi

  31. [39]

    2022, A&A, 666, A17, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202243708

    Gilli, R., Norman, C., Calura, F., et al. 2022, A&A, 666, A17, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202243708

    2022 doi

  32. [40]

    D., Sloan, G

    Gordon, K. D., Sloan, G. C., Garcia Marin, M., et al. 2025, AJ, 169, 6, doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/ad8cd4

    2025 doi

  33. [41]

    D., Alexander, D

    Goulding, A. D., Alexander, D. M., Bauer, F. E., et al. 2012, ApJ, 755, 5, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/755/1/5

    2012 doi

  34. [42]

    E., Setton, D

    Greene, J. E., Setton, D. J., Furtak, L. J., et al. 2026, ApJ, 996, 129, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae1836

    2026 doi

  35. [43]

    A., Kocevski, D

    Grogin, N. A., Kocevski, D. D., Faber, S. M., et al. 2011, ApJS, 197, 35, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/197/2/35

    2011 doi

  36. [44]

    2023, ApJ, 959, 39, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad029e

    Harikane, Y., Zhang, Y., Nakajima, K., et al. 2023, ApJ, 959, 39, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad029e

    2023 doi

  37. [45]

    M., & Best, P

    Heckman, T. M., & Best, P. N. 2014, ARA&A, 52, 589, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-081913-035722

    2014 doi

  38. [46]

    J., Oesch, P

    Herard-Demanche, T., Bouwens, R. J., Oesch, P. A., et al. 2025, MNRAS, 537, 788, doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf030

    2025 doi

  39. [47]

    2026, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2602.04974, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2602.04974

    Huang, J., Hennawi, J., Pizzati, E., et al. 2026, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2602.04974, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2602.04974

    2026 doi

  40. [48]

    2020, ARA&A, 58, 27, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-120419-014455

    Inayoshi, K., Visbal, E., & Haiman, Z. 2020, ARA&A, 58, 27, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-120419-014455

    2020 doi

  41. [49]

    2012, A&A, 546, A84, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201220036

    Iwasawa, K., Gilli, R., Vignali, C., et al. 2012, A&A, 546, A84, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201220036

    2012 doi

  42. [50]

    2020, A&A, 639, A51, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201937246

    Iwasawa, K., Comastri, A., Vignali, C., et al. 2020, A&A, 639, A51, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201937246

    2020 doi

  43. [51]

    M., et al

    Kirkpatrick, A., Pope, A., Alexander, D. M., et al. 2012, ApJ, 759, 139, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/759/2/139

    2012 doi

  44. [52]

    2023, ApJL, 959, L7, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ad0b14

    Kirkpatrick, A., Yang, G., Le Bail, A., et al. 2023, ApJL, 959, L7, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ad0b14

    2023 doi

  45. [53]

    D., Onoue, M., Inayoshi, K., et al

    Kocevski, D. D., Onoue, M., Inayoshi, K., et al. 2023, ApJL, 954, L4, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ace5a0

    2023 doi

  46. [54]

    H., Newman, J

    Kodra, D., Andrews, B. H., Newman, J. A., et al. 2023, ApJ, 942, 36, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac9f12

    2023 doi

  47. [55]

    M., Faber, S

    Koekemoer, A. M., Faber, S. M., Ferguson, H. C., et al. 2011, ApJS, 197, 36, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/197/2/36

    2011 doi

  48. [56]

    Kormendy, J., & Ho, L. C. 2013, ARA&A, 51, 511, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101811

    2013 doi

  49. [57]

    E., Sajina, A., et al

    Lacy, M., Ridgway, S. E., Sajina, A., et al. 2015, ApJ, 802, 102, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/802/2/102

    2015 doi

  50. [58]

    J., Sajina, A., et al

    Lacy, M., Storrie-Lombardi, L. J., Sajina, A., et al. 2004, ApJS, 154, 166, doi: 10.1086/422816

    2004 doi

  51. [59]

    E., Gates, E

    Lacy, M., Ridgway, S. E., Gates, E. L., et al. 2013, ApJS, 208, 24, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/208/2/24

    2013 doi

  52. [60]

    2026, A&A, 705, A214, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202555947

    Lagache, G., Xiao, M., Beelen, A., et al. 2026, A&A, 705, A214, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202555947

    2026 doi

  53. [61]

    L., Finkelstein, S

    Larson, R. L., Finkelstein, S. L., Kocevski, D. D., et al. 2023a, ApJL, 953, L29, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ace619

    doi

  54. [62]

    L., Hutchison, T

    Larson, R. L., Hutchison, T. A., Bagley, M., et al. 2023b, ApJ, 958, 141, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/acfed4 MEOW21

    doi

  55. [63]

    1982, ApJ, 256, 410, doi: 10.1086/159918

    Lawrence, A., & Elvis, M. 1982, ApJ, 256, 410, doi: 10.1086/159918

    1982 doi

  56. [64]

    Leitherer, C., Li, I.-H., Calzetti, D., & Heckman, T. M. 2002, ApJS, 140, 303, doi: 10.1086/342486

    2002 doi

  57. [65]

    Leung, G. C. K., Bagley, M. B., Finkelstein, S. L., et al. 2023, ApJL, 954, L46, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/acf365

    2023 doi

  58. [66]

    Leung, G. C. K., Finkelstein, S. L., P´ erez-Gonz´ alez, P. G., et al. 2025, ApJ, 992, 26, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/adfcce

    2025 doi

  59. [67]

    2024, ApJ, 974, 147, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad6565

    Lin, X., Wang, F., Fan, X., et al. 2024, ApJ, 974, 147, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad6565

    2024 doi

  60. [68]

    2026, ApJ, 996, 93, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae1b9b

    Lin, X., Fan, X., Wang, F., et al. 2026, ApJ, 996, 93, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae1b9b

    2026 doi

  61. [69]

    2006, MNRAS, 371, 1813, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10801.x

    Lodato, G., & Natarajan, P. 2006, MNRAS, 371, 1813, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10801.x

    2006 doi

  62. [70]

    Loeb, A., & Rasio, F. A. 1994, ApJ, 432, 52, doi: 10.1086/174548

    1994 doi

  63. [71]

    H., et al

    Lyu, J., Alberts, S., Rieke, G. H., et al. 2024, ApJ, 966, 229, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad3643

    2024 doi

  64. [72]

    2014, ApJL, 784, L38, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/784/2/L38

    Madau, P., Haardt, F., & Dotti, M. 2014, ApJL, 784, L38, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/784/2/L38

    2014 doi

  65. [73]

    1998, AJ, 115, 2285, doi: 10.1086/300353

    Magorrian, J., Tremaine, S., Richstone, D., et al. 1998, AJ, 115, 2285, doi: 10.1086/300353

    1998 doi

  66. [74]

    2024, A&A, 691, A145, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202347640

    Maiolino, R., Scholtz, J., Curtis-Lake, E., et al. 2024, A&A, 691, A145, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202347640

    2024 doi

  67. [75]

    A., Gorjian, V., & Tam, R

    Malkan, M. A., Gorjian, V., & Tam, R. 1998, ApJS, 117, 25, doi: 10.1086/313110

    1998 doi

  68. [76]

    P., Brammer, G., et al

    Matthee, J., Naidu, R. P., Brammer, G., et al. 2024, ApJ, 963, 129, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad2345

    2024 doi

  69. [77]

    2026, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2603.17667, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2603.17667

    Matthee, J., Torralba, A., Pezzulli, G., et al. 2026, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2603.17667, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2603.17667

    2026 doi

  70. [78]

    A., Oesch, P

    Meyer, R. A., Oesch, P. A., Giovinazzo, E., et al. 2024, MNRAS, 535, 1067, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stae2353

    2024 doi

  71. [79]

    2015, ARA&A, 53, 365, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-082214-122302

    Netzer, H. 2015, ARA&A, 53, 365, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-082214-122302

    2015 doi

  72. [80]

    A., Brammer, G., Naidu, R

    Oesch, P. A., Brammer, G., Naidu, R. P., et al. 2023, MNRAS, 525, 2864, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stad2411 ¨Ostlin, G., P´ erez-Gonz´ alez, P. G., Melinder, J., et al. 2025, A&A, 696, A57, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202451723 P´ erez-Gonz´ alez, P. G., Barro, G., Rieke, G. H., et al. 202...

    2023 doi

  73. [81]

    E., et al

    Pirzkal, N., Malhotra, S., Ryan, R. E., et al. 2017, ApJ, 846, 84, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa81cc Planck Collaboration, Aghanim, N., Akrami, Y., et al. 2020, A&A, 641, A6, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201833910

    2017 doi

  74. [82]

    2005, MNRAS, 358, 149, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08759.x Ramos Almeida, C., & Ricci, C

    Pope, A., Borys, C., Scott, D., et al. 2005, MNRAS, 358, 149, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08759.x Ramos Almeida, C., & Ricci, C. 2017, Nature Astronomy, 1, 679, doi: 10.1038/s41550-017-0232-z

    2005 doi

  75. [83]

    H., Alberts, S., Shivaei, I., et al

    Rieke, G. H., Alberts, S., Shivaei, I., et al. 2024, ApJ, 975, 83, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad6cd2

    2024 doi

  76. [84]

    2026, ApJ, 1003, 234, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae5e6b

    Ronayne, K., Papovich, C., Kirkpatrick, A., et al. 2026, ApJ, 1003, 234, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae5e6b

    2026 doi

  77. [85]

    C., & Haehnelt, M

    Satyavolu, S., Kulkarni, G., Keating, L. C., & Haehnelt, M. G. 2023, MNRAS, 521, 3108, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stad729

    2023 doi

  78. [86]

    F., & Finkbeiner, D

    Schlafly, E. F., & Finkbeiner, D. P. 2011, ApJ, 737, 103, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/737/2/103

    2011 doi

  79. [87]

    2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2510.01034, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2510.01034

    Scholtz, J., Carniani, S., Parlanti, E., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2510.01034, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2510.01034

    2025 doi

  80. [88]

    F., Faucher-Gigu` ere, C.-A., et al

    Shen, X., Hopkins, P. F., Faucher-Gigu` ere, C.-A., et al. 2020, MNRAS, 495, 3252, doi: 10.1093/mnras/staa1381

    2020 doi

  81. [89]

    D., Mainieri, V., Ding, X., et al

    Silverman, J. D., Mainieri, V., Ding, X., et al. 2023, ApJL, 951, L41, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/acdef4

    2023 doi

  82. [90]

    Stalevski, M., Fritz, J., Baes, M., Nakos, T., & Popovi´ c, L. ˇC. 2012, MNRAS, 420, 2756, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19775.x

    2012 doi

  83. [91]

    2016, MNRAS, 458, 2288, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw444

    Stalevski, M., Ricci, C., Ueda, Y., et al. 2016, MNRAS, 458, 2288, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw444

    2016 doi

  84. [92]

    2005, ApJ, 631, 163, doi: 10.1086/432523

    Stern, D., Eisenhardt, P., Gorjian, V., et al. 2005, ApJ, 631, 163, doi: 10.1086/432523

    2005 doi

  85. [93]

    J., Finkelstein, S

    Taylor, A. J., Finkelstein, S. L., Kocevski, D. D., et al. 2025, ApJ, 986, 165, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/add15b

    2025 doi

  86. [94]

    M., & Padovani, P

    Urry, C. M., & Padovani, P. 1995, PASP, 107, 803, doi: 10.1086/133630 Villa-V´ elez, J. A., Buat, V., Theul´ e, P., Boquien, M., &

    1995 doi

  87. [95]

    2021, A&A, 654, A153, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202140890

    Burgarella, D. 2021, A&A, 654, A153, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202140890

    2021 doi

  88. [96]

    N., Yang, G., et al

    Vito, F., Brandt, W. N., Yang, G., et al. 2018, MNRAS, 473, 2378, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx2486

    2018 doi

  89. [97]

    Volonteri, M., & Rees, M. J. 2005, ApJ, 633, 624, doi: 10.1086/466521

    2005 doi

  90. [98]

    2015, ApJ, 804, 148, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/804/2/148

    Volonteri, M., Silk, J., & Dubus, G. 2015, ApJ, 804, 148, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/804/2/148

    2015 doi

  91. [99]

    C., Tacchella, S., Maseda, M

    Williams, C. C., Tacchella, S., Maseda, M. V., et al. 2023, ApJS, 268, 64, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/acf130

    2023 doi

  92. [100]

    C., Alberts, S., Ji, Z., et al

    Williams, C. C., Alberts, S., Ji, Z., et al. 2024, ApJ, 968, 34, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad3f17

    2024 doi

  93. [101]

    2015, Nature, 518, 512, doi: 10.1038/nature14241

    Wu, X.-B., Wang, F., Fan, X., et al. 2015, Nature, 518, 512, doi: 10.1038/nature14241

    2015 doi

  94. [102]

    C., & Zhuang, M.-Y

    Wu, Z., Ho, L. C., & Zhuang, M.-Y. 2022, ApJ, 941, 95, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac9cd5

    2022 doi

  95. [103]

    A., Elbaz, D., et al

    Xiao, M., Oesch, P. A., Elbaz, D., et al. 2024, Nature, 635, 311, doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-08094-5

    2024 doi

  96. [104]

    A., Bing, L., et al

    Xiao, M., Oesch, P. A., Bing, L., et al. 2025, A&A, 700, A231, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202554361

    2025 doi

  97. [105]

    2020, MNRAS, 491, 740, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz3001 22Leung et al

    Yang, G., Boquien, M., Buat, V., et al. 2020, MNRAS, 491, 740, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz3001 22Leung et al

    2020 doi

  98. [106]

    N., et al

    Yang, G., Boquien, M., Brandt, W. N., et al. 2022, ApJ, 927, 192, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac4971

    2022 doi

  99. [107]

    I., Papovich, C., et al

    Yang, G., Caputi, K. I., Papovich, C., et al. 2023a, ApJL, 950, L5, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/acd639

    doi

  100. [108]

    B., et al

    Yang, G., Papovich, C., Bagley, M. B., et al. 2023b, ApJL, 956, L12, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/acfaa0

    doi

  101. [109]

    2026, ApJ, 997, 250, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae2681

    Zhang, J., Egami, E., Sun, F., et al. 2026, ApJ, 997, 250, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae2681

    2026 doi

Pith tools

Reviewed July 12, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.