Direct Observation of Wilsonian Electrons in Thunderstorms

A.Chilingarian; B.Sargsyan; T.Karapetyan

REVIEW 3 major objections 6 minor 16 references

Direct Observation of Wilsonian Electrons in Thunderstorms

T0 review · 3 major / 6 minor · reviewed 2026-07-15 · grok-4.5

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Pith's one-line read Runaway thunderstorm electrons reach detectors only when the cloud base drops to tens of meters above the ground.

desk verdict Solid multi-event electron spectra under low cloud bases; the geometric rarity claim is plausible but rests on a proxy height, not a measured path length. read the letter →

arxiv 2607.11901 v1 pith:U4RZTALK submitted 2026-06-27 physics.ao-ph

A.Chilingarian , T.Karapetyan , B.Sargsyan This is my paper · ORCID

classification physics.ao-ph

keywords thunderstormgroundenhancementsWilsonianelectronsrelativisticrunawayelectronavalanchescloud-baseheightcharged-neutralseparationnear-surfaceelectricfieldenergyspectraatmosphericparticleacceleration

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

For a century, strong thunderstorm electric fields have been expected to accelerate electrons to relativistic energies, yet the electrons themselves have almost never been caught at the surface while the gamma rays they produce are routinely seen. This paper reports six electron-rich thunderstorm ground enhancements in which a spectrometer that separates charged from neutral particles recovers electron spectra reaching 45 MeV. Every one of those events occurred under the same narrow set of conditions: cloud base only a few tens of meters above the detectors, surface temperatures near 0 °C, strong near-surface electric-field disturbances, and nearby lightning. Comparison with the full multi-year archive of ordinary (mostly gamma-dominated) events shows that electron survival is controlled by propagation distance. The long-standing rarity is therefore geometric rather than physical: the electrons are produced, but they are absorbed before they can reach ordinary detector altitudes unless the acceleration region itself descends almost to the ground.

What carries the argument

SEVAN-Light charged/neutral coincidence spectrometer plus cloud-base height Hcloud = 122 × (T − Td). Coincidence logic isolates the electron component; the height formula, together with near-0 °C temperatures, places the mixed-phase charge-separation region only tens of meters above the station, short enough for multi-tens-of-MeV electrons to reach the detector.

What would settle it

A statistically significant electron-rich TGE recorded by the same charged/neutral spectrometer while independent ceilometer or lidar measurements place the cloud base hundreds of meters or more above the station would falsify the geometric-proximity requirement.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

Direct ground-level detection of Wilsonian runaway electrons becomes possible only when the active acceleration region lies within several tens of meters of the detector (mean cloud-base height 44.7 ± 19.6 m for the six events). Under those rare near-ground conditions the electrons survive atmospheric attenuation, produce measurable charged-particle fluxes up to 45 MeV, and exhibit stable exponential spectra, thereby explaining why such detections have remained exceptional for a century.

Load-bearing premise

The claim rests on the premise that the simple temperature–dew-point formula, together with near-freezing surface air, truly locates the runaway-electron acceleration region only tens of meters above the detectors rather than higher or laterally offset.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

Most historical and future ground-based TGE searches will remain gamma-dominated unless instruments are placed under unusually low mixed-phase cloud bases.
Models of relativistic runaway electron avalanches must treat a distinct near-ground regime in which both electrons and photons survive to detector altitude.
Lightning termination of four of the six events supplies direct evidence that the avalanche is controlled by the pre-discharge electric-field structure.
Stable exponential spectral shapes with characteristic energies of 6–9 MeV across events of very different intensity imply a common acceleration mechanism whose main variation is avalanche multiplication.
The atmospheric conditions required for direct electron detection are now observationally defined and can be used to design targeted campaigns.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

Sites that routinely experience low mixed-phase cloud bases at high altitude should show a higher fraction of electron-rich TGEs than low-elevation stations.
If the geometric condition is universal, satellite or aircraft TGF observations may still miss the bulk electron population for the same attenuation reason.
Coordinated ceilometer–spectrometer campaigns during spring and autumn transition storms would provide the cleanest test of the height threshold.
The same proximity requirement may explain why early twentieth-century searches for Wilson electrons failed even when gamma-ray glows were later found to be common.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

The useful core is six SEVAN-Light TGEs with charged/neutral separation and unfolded electron spectra to ~45 MeV, all sitting in a tight meteorological pocket (cloud base ~25–87 m, T near 0 °C, strong NSEF, often lightning-terminated). That is cleaner than most prior Aragats electron claims and gives a concrete observational answer to why Wilsonian electrons have been rare: electrons only survive when the source is tens of meters away.

What they do well is the detector logic and the archive contrast. The “11” vs “01” coincidences, efficiency numbers, and GEANT4 unfolding produce stable exponential spectra (E0 ~6–9 MeV). Event selection is multi-channel plus |NSEF| > 5 kV m⁻¹, so electron richness is not just a bright-TGE cut. The 2012–2025 comparison shows these six sit well below the typical cloud-base population. Data are on ADEI; the tables are transparent.

The soft spot is real but not fatal. Hcloud = 122(T−Td) is an LCL estimate, not a lidar/radar height of the charge layer or the RREA volume. Low LCL plus mixed-phase temperature makes a short path length likely, but it does not prove the acceleration region itself is only tens of meters above the roof. Lateral offset or a higher layer with favorable field geometry remains possible. Sample size is six; response-matrix details live mostly in prior papers. Those are the right caveats, not reasons to dismiss the result.

This is for people who work on TGEs, TGFs, RREA, and lightning initiation. It is observational, not a new theory paper. Math and spectral fits look ordinary and solid; citations are heavy on the Aragats program but also engage the recent debate (Williams, Mailyan, etc.). I would send it to referees. Ask for independent height diagnostics or clearer language that the path-length claim is proxy-based, and for fuller public response matrices. Worth engaging.

Referee Report

3 major / 6 minor

Summary. The manuscript reports six electron-rich Thunderstorm Ground Enhancements (TGEs) recorded at Aragats (3200 m) with the SEVAN-Light spectrometer, which separates charged and neutral particles via coincidence logic and reconstructs electron energy spectra by GEANT4 unfolding. The events show statistically significant electron enhancements (mean ~18.6%, ~16.8σ), exponential spectra with characteristic energies E0 ~ 6.3–8.6 MeV and maximum reconstructed energies up to 45 MeV, and occur under a compact set of conditions: cloud-base heights estimated at 25–87.5 m (mean 44.7 ± 19.6 m), surface temperatures near 0 °C, strong near-surface electric-field disturbances, and frequent nearby lightning (often terminating the flux). Comparison with the 2012–2025 Aragats TGE archive is used to argue that direct detection of Wilsonian/runaway electrons becomes possible only when the acceleration region approaches within several tens of meters of the detector, thereby explaining the century-long rarity of such observations.

Significance. If the geometric interpretation holds, the paper supplies a concrete experimental resolution of a long-standing observational paradox in high-energy atmospheric physics: why gamma-ray glows and TGEs are common while direct electron detections remain rare. The combination of charged/neutral separation, spectral unfolding to tens of MeV, multi-parameter event tables, and archive contrast is a genuine strength of the Aragats program and would establish a distinct near-ground RREA regime. The work is therefore of clear interest for models of RREA, TGFs, lightning initiation, and natural particle acceleration, provided the identification of cloud-base proxy with electron path length is tightened or appropriately caveated.

major comments (3)

Method §2, Eq. (1) and Tables 1–2: The central claim that electrons are observed “only when the active acceleration region approaches within several tens of meters” rests on equating Hcloud = 122 × (T - Td) with the vertical path length from the RREA volume to the detector. The formula estimates the lifting-condensation level of surface air, not the altitude of the charge layer or the electron-production region. A higher or laterally offset mixed-phase structure could still deliver electrons under suitable field geometry. Without independent height diagnostics (ceilometer, radar, or multi-station timing) or a quantitative attenuation calculation that maps Hcloud to surviving electron flux, the causal “only when … tens of meters” statement remains a proxy inference. The claim should be restated as a necessary meteorological association or supported by additional height/attenuation evidenc
§3.1–3.2 and archive comparison: The electron-rich sample comprises only six events, while the archive contrast uses a 15% two-sided trim on temperature, cloud-base, and lightning distance. With such a small selected class, the reported compactness (mean Hcloud 44.7 ± 19.6 m, T = 0.0 ± 1.3 °C) and the factor-of-2.5 difference relative to the archive central population need a clearer statistical treatment (selection completeness, false-positive rate for the coincidence channel, and sensitivity of the trim). Otherwise the geometric uniqueness argument is under-powered relative to the strength of the abstract and conclusions.
§2 detector response and §3.3 spectral recovery: The “11” coincidence is stated to be predominantly electrons (efficiency 60–99% for 10–50 MeV, gamma contamination 0.8–1.8%), yet residual gamma contamination and any muon contribution at these energies are not quantified event-by-event after unfolding. Because the claim of direct Wilsonian-electron detection is load-bearing, a short contamination budget (or upper limit) for the unfolded spectra in Figure 2 / Table 2 should be provided so that the 37–45 MeV endpoints cannot be attributed to residual neutrals or systematics.

minor comments (6)

Figure 1 caption and layout: The multi-panel description (“panels a-b”) is hard to parse for six events; label each event explicitly and ensure NSEF polarity and lightning-termination markers are legible.
Table 1: Mean/RMSD row for NSEF is left blank (“-”) while other columns report values; either compute the mean/RMSD or state why polarity precludes a simple average.
Table 2 vs. Table 1: Cloud-base heights differ slightly (e.g., 85.4 m vs. 87.5 m for TGE1) because of rounding of T-Td; note the source of the difference or use a single consistent value.
References: Several 2026 items are listed as “in press”; ensure they are citable or replace with DOIs/preprints where available. Heavy self-citation of the Aragats series is understandable but a few independent RREA/TGF reviews would improve balance.
Plain-language summary and abstract: Phrases such as “century-long rarity” and “experimental explanation” are strong; once the geometric claim is caveated, align the wording so that the summary does not over-state the path-length identification.
Notation: SEVAN-Light / SEVAN Light and “Wilsonian electrons” / “runaway electrons” alternate; pick consistent forms. Also define LADC and NSEF at first use in the main text.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 1.0 of 10

Observational correlation paper; no derivation reduces to its inputs by construction. Minor self-citation of the Aragats program is present but not load-bearing for the geometric claim.

full rationale

The paper is experimental/observational rather than a first-principles derivation. Electron-rich TGEs are identified from independent particle measurements (SEVAN-Light “11” charged coincidence, multi-channel coherence, |NSEF| > 5 kV m⁻¹, spectral unfolding via GEANT4), then their meteorological parameters (cloud-base from the standard Hcloud = 122×(T−Td) formula, T≈0 °C, lightning) are reported and contrasted with the broader Aragats TGE archive. The central claim—that direct electron detection requires the acceleration region within tens of meters—is an inductive generalization from that empirical cluster (mean Hcloud 44.7 ± 19.6 m), not a quantity forced by fitting a free parameter and re-labeling it as a prediction, nor a uniqueness theorem imported from the authors’ prior work. Spectral form is taken from the external Dwyer & Babich (2011) exponential and is descriptive, not predictive of the geometric condition. Heavy self-citation of the Aragats detector and TGE catalog is normal methodological continuity and does not make the geometric conclusion true by construction. The weakest link (equating LCL/cloud-base proxy with RREA path length) is a physical-assumption / correctness issue, not circularity. Score 1 only for the mild, non-load-bearing self-citation density; no step meets the threshold of a quoted reduction by construction.

Assumptions & free parameters 4 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on standard RREA physics, a simple meteorological cloud-base proxy, detector coincidence efficiencies, and GEANT4 spectral unfolding. No new particles or forces are invented; free parameters are mainly spectral fit coefficients and selection thresholds. The load-bearing domain assumptions are that low estimated cloud base equals short electron path length from the acceleration region and that the “11” coincidence is electron-dominated at the stated contamination levels.

free parameters (4)

Spectral amplitude A and characteristic energy E0 per event
Exponential fits to unfolded electron spectra (Table 2); A varies 2245–8775 and E0 6.33–8.57 MeV are data-driven fit parameters used to characterize the electron population.
TGE selection thresholds (multi-σ enhancement, |NSEF| > 5 kV m⁻¹)
Operational cuts that define the event sample and the archive comparison population (Method §2).
15% two-sided trim on archive means
Ad-hoc robust-mean procedure applied to the 2012–2025 TGE archive for temperature, cloud base, and lightning distance.
Cloud-base coefficient 122 in Hcloud = 122×(T−Td)
Standard approximation constant used to convert temperature–dew-point spread into meters; not re-derived here but controls the key geometric variable.

assumptions (6)

domain assumption Relativistic runaway electron avalanche (RREA) physics produces both relativistic electrons and bremsstrahlung gamma rays in strong thundercloud fields.
Background framework cited from Gurevich, Babich, Dwyer et al. and used throughout Introduction and Discussion.
domain assumption Electrons are strongly attenuated in air over tens–hundreds of meters while gamma rays propagate farther, creating an observational asymmetry.
Core physical premise of the rarity explanation (Introduction and §4).
domain assumption Hcloud = 122×(T−Td) plus near-0 °C surface conditions adequately locates the lower edge of the acceleration region relative to the detector.
Method §2 and Tables 1–2; converts meteorology into the claimed short path length.
domain assumption SEVAN-Light “11” coincidences are electron-dominated (efficiency 60–99% for 10–50 MeV; gamma contamination 0.8–1.8%) while “01” is neutral-dominated.
Method §2 detector characterization used to claim direct electron detection.
domain assumption GEANT4 response-matrix unfolding recovers true electron energies above ~10 MeV for the reported spectra.
§3.3 spectral reconstruction citing prior Chilingarian et al. inverse-problem method.
domain assumption Exponential spectral form consistent with Dwyer & Babich (2011) indicates the same RREA acceleration mechanism across events.
§3.3 interpretation of stable E0 values.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Direct Observation of Wilsonian Electrons in Thunderstorms." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/U4RZTALK

@misc{pith2026260711901,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Direct Observation of Wilsonian Electrons in Thunderstorms},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/U4RZTALK}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2607.11901}
}

read the original abstract

We analyze electron rich Thunderstorm Ground Enhancements (TGEs) detected at Aragats using the SEVAN Light spectrometer, which can separate charged and neutral particles and reconstruct their energy spectra. The events exhibit large electron fluxes, with reconstructed energies extending to 45 MeV. Simultaneous meteorological observations reveal that all events occurred within a remarkably narrow atmospheric regime characterized by exceptionally low cloud-base heights, temperatures near 0{\deg}C, strong electric-field disturbances, and lightning. Comparisons with the complete Aragats TGE archive demonstrate that the direct detection of runaway electrons becomes possible only when the active acceleration region approaches within several tens of meters of detector altitude, allowing electrons to survive atmospheric attenuation. These results provide an experimental explanation for the century long rarity of observations of Wilsonian electrons. The findings establish the atmospheric conditions required for direct observation of runaway electrons and contribute to the understanding of particle acceleration in natural electric fields.

Discussion (0). Continue with ORCID to comment.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

16 extracted references · 9 canonical work pages

[1]

The relativistic runaway electron avalanches model (RREA; Gurevich et al., 1992; Babich et al., 2001; Alexeenko et al., 2002; Dwyer,

Introduction Wilson's original proposal that thunderstorm electric fields can accelerate electrons remains a central idea in high-energy atmospheric physics. The relativistic runaway electron avalanches model (RREA; Gurevich et al., 1992; Babich et al., 2001; Alexeenko et al., 2002; Dwyer,

1992
[2]

explains how seed electrons can be accelerated and multiplied in sufficiently strong electric fields, producing both relativistic electrons and bremsstrahlung gamma rays. However, despite substantial theoretical progress and numerous observations of gamma-ray glows (Torii et al., 2011 ), terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs, Fishman et al., 1994), and thun...

2011
[3]

01" coincidence, which generate a signal in the lower scintillator but not in the upper, will be enriched in neutral particles. The samples selected by the “11

Method We present six electron-rich TGEs detected by the SEVAN-Light spectrometer at Aragats during 2024–2026. By combining electron flux measurements, reconstructed electron energy spectra, cloud-base estimates, lightning observations, and near-surface electric-field measurements, we identify the atmospheric conditions that enable direct observation of r...

2024
[4]

TGE1, 2 October 2024 at 00:42 UT, is one of the two very strong gamma events

Electron-rich TGEs: each event is shown with panels a-b: percent enhancement of count rate, and NSEF. TGE1, 2 October 2024 at 00:42 UT, is one of the two very strong gamma events. The gamma enhancement reaches 118.8% with 64.8 σ significance, while the electron channel increases by 22.3% with 19.0 σ significance. The cloud base is the highest among the se...

2024
[5]

The last row gives the simple mean and RMSD for the six events

Event-level parameters for the six electron-rich TGEs. The last row gives the simple mean and RMSD for the six events. The gamma and electron columns list percent enhancement and baseline σ significance. The table shows that the electron significance is consistently high, while cloud-base distance and temperature fall within a compact range favorable for ...

2024
[6]

Energy Spectra fit parameters with spread-derived cloud-base estimates Event peak UT Max Energy (MeV) A parameter E0 parameter T (°C) Td (°C) Spread T−Td (°C) Hcloud (m) 2024-10-02 00:42 31.0 8775.0 6.33 0.8 0.1 0.70 85.4 2024-10-02 12:42 34.0 7536.0 7.13 0.4 0.0 0.40 48.8 2024-10-16 21:03 45.0 3041.0 8.57 0.9 0.6 0.30 36.6 2024-10-16 22:22 37.0 3998.0 8....

2024
[7]

The estimated cloud-base heights ranged from only 25 to 85 m above detector level, with a mean of 44.7 ± 19.6 m

All six events occurred under nearly saturated atmospheric conditions, with very small temperature–dew-point spreads (T−Td) of 0.2–0.7 °C. The estimated cloud-base heights ranged from only 25 to 85 m above detector level, with a mean of 44.7 ± 19.6 m. Under such conditions, relativistic electrons generated within the avalanche region can propagate directl...

2012
[8]

Discussion and Conclusions The six events observed from 2024 to 2026 provide strong experimental evidence for the direct detection of Wilsonian electrons at Aragats and identify the atmospheric conditions most favorable for their direct observation. More generally, the results demonstrate that electron-rich TGEs constitute a distinct near-ground RREA regi...

work page doi:10.1016/s0375-9601(02)00981-7 2024

Show all 16 references

[9]

Chilingarian, A., Reymers, A., Karapetyan, T., et al

https://doi.org/10.1109/27.928940. Chilingarian, A., Reymers, A., Karapetyan, T., et al. (2009). Space Environmental Viewing and Analysis Network (SEVAN), Earth, Moon, and Planets, 104, 105–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11038-008-9298-6 Chilingarian, A., Daryan, A., Arakelyan,...

2009 doi
[10]

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2013.11.004 Chilingarian, A., et al. (2015). Lightning origination and thunderstorm ground enhancements terminated by the lightning flash. EPL, 110, 49001. https://doi.org/10.1209/0295-5075/110/49001 Chilingarian, A., Hovsepyan, G., and Mailya...

2013 doi
[11]

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-01288-0 Chilingarian, A., Sargsyan, B., Karapetyan, T., Aslanyan, D., Chilingaryan, S., Kozliner, L., and Khanikyanc, Y. (2024a). Extreme thunderstorm ground enhancements registered on Aragats in

doi
[12]

DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevD.110.063043

Physical Review D, 110, 063043. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevD.110.063043. Chilingarian A., Karapetyan T., Sargsyan B., Knapp J., Walter M., Rehm T. (2024b). Increase in the count rates of ground-based cosmic-ray detectors caused by the heliomagnetic disturbance on 5 November 2023, EPL...

2023 doi
[13]

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2024.110554 Chilingarian, A., Williams, E., Hovsepyan, G

Data in Brief, 54, 110554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2024.110554 Chilingarian, A., Williams, E., Hovsepyan, G. & Mkrtchyan, H.,

2024 doi
[14]

Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 130, e2024JD042350

Why Schonland failed in his search for runaway electrons from thunderstorms. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 130, e2024JD042350. https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JD042350. Chilingarian A., Sargsyan B., Kozliner L., Karapetyan T., and Zazyan M. (2026). Resolving GLE 77...

2026 doi
[15]

R., & Babich, L

https://doi.org/10.1029/2003GL017781 Dwyer, J. R., & Babich, L. P. (2011). Low-energy electron production by relativistic runaway electron avalanches in air. Journal of Geophysical Research, 116, A09301. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JA016494 Gurevich, A. V., Milikh, G. M., and ...

2011 doi
[16]

Migrating source of energetic radiation generated by thunderstorm activity. Geophys. Res.Lett. 38, L24801. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL049731. Williams, E. R., Mailyan, B., Karapetyan, G., and Mkrtchyan, H. (2023). Conditions for energetic electrons and gamma rays in thunder...

2023 doi

Pith tools

Reviewed July 15, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.

[1] [1]

The relativistic runaway electron avalanches model (RREA; Gurevich et al., 1992; Babich et al., 2001; Alexeenko et al., 2002; Dwyer,

Introduction Wilson's original proposal that thunderstorm electric fields can accelerate electrons remains a central idea in high-energy atmospheric physics. The relativistic runaway electron avalanches model (RREA; Gurevich et al., 1992; Babich et al., 2001; Alexeenko et al., 2002; Dwyer,

1992

[2] [2]

explains how seed electrons can be accelerated and multiplied in sufficiently strong electric fields, producing both relativistic electrons and bremsstrahlung gamma rays. However, despite substantial theoretical progress and numerous observations of gamma-ray glows (Torii et al., 2011 ), terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs, Fishman et al., 1994), and thun...

2011

[3] [3]

01" coincidence, which generate a signal in the lower scintillator but not in the upper, will be enriched in neutral particles. The samples selected by the “11

Method We present six electron-rich TGEs detected by the SEVAN-Light spectrometer at Aragats during 2024–2026. By combining electron flux measurements, reconstructed electron energy spectra, cloud-base estimates, lightning observations, and near-surface electric-field measurements, we identify the atmospheric conditions that enable direct observation of r...

2024

[4] [4]

TGE1, 2 October 2024 at 00:42 UT, is one of the two very strong gamma events

Electron-rich TGEs: each event is shown with panels a-b: percent enhancement of count rate, and NSEF. TGE1, 2 October 2024 at 00:42 UT, is one of the two very strong gamma events. The gamma enhancement reaches 118.8% with 64.8 σ significance, while the electron channel increases by 22.3% with 19.0 σ significance. The cloud base is the highest among the se...

2024

[5] [5]

The last row gives the simple mean and RMSD for the six events

Event-level parameters for the six electron-rich TGEs. The last row gives the simple mean and RMSD for the six events. The gamma and electron columns list percent enhancement and baseline σ significance. The table shows that the electron significance is consistently high, while cloud-base distance and temperature fall within a compact range favorable for ...

2024

[6] [6]

Energy Spectra fit parameters with spread-derived cloud-base estimates Event peak UT Max Energy (MeV) A parameter E0 parameter T (°C) Td (°C) Spread T−Td (°C) Hcloud (m) 2024-10-02 00:42 31.0 8775.0 6.33 0.8 0.1 0.70 85.4 2024-10-02 12:42 34.0 7536.0 7.13 0.4 0.0 0.40 48.8 2024-10-16 21:03 45.0 3041.0 8.57 0.9 0.6 0.30 36.6 2024-10-16 22:22 37.0 3998.0 8....

2024

[7] [7]

The estimated cloud-base heights ranged from only 25 to 85 m above detector level, with a mean of 44.7 ± 19.6 m

All six events occurred under nearly saturated atmospheric conditions, with very small temperature–dew-point spreads (T−Td) of 0.2–0.7 °C. The estimated cloud-base heights ranged from only 25 to 85 m above detector level, with a mean of 44.7 ± 19.6 m. Under such conditions, relativistic electrons generated within the avalanche region can propagate directl...

2012

[8] [8]

Discussion and Conclusions The six events observed from 2024 to 2026 provide strong experimental evidence for the direct detection of Wilsonian electrons at Aragats and identify the atmospheric conditions most favorable for their direct observation. More generally, the results demonstrate that electron-rich TGEs constitute a distinct near-ground RREA regi...

work page doi:10.1016/s0375-9601(02)00981-7 2024