The structural architecture of the Los Humeros volcanic complex and geothermal field

Cesar Castro; Domenico Montanari; Fernando Corbo-Camargo; Fidel Cedillo; Gerardo Carrasco Nunez; Giacomo Corti; Gianluca Norini; Giovanna Moratti; Guillermo Chavez; Javier Hernandez Rojas

arxiv: 1907.08799 · v1 · pith:6MABZJ35new · submitted 2019-07-20 · ⚛️ physics.geo-ph

The structural architecture of the Los Humeros volcanic complex and geothermal field

Gianluca Norini , Gerardo Carrasco Nunez , Fernando Corbo-Camargo , Javier Lermo , Javier Hernandez Rojas , Cesar Castro , Marco Bonini , Domenico Montanari

show 7 more authors

Giacomo Corti Giovanna Moratti Luigi Piccardi Guillermo Chavez Maria Clara Zuluaga Miguel Ramirez Fidel Cedillo

This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-24 18:44 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ⚛️ physics.geo-ph

keywords Los Humeros Volcanic Complexcaldera structuregeothermal fieldvolcano-tectonic interaction3D geological modelTrans-Mexican Volcanic Beltfault architecture

0 comments

The pith

Integrated data from geothermal exploration maps the 3D structural architecture of the Los Humeros caldera complex.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper integrates surface geological mapping with subsurface data from geothermal wells to construct a three-dimensional model of the Los Humeros Volcanic Complex. This model details the faults, caldera collapses, and volcanic features that shape the system. A reader would care because the complex hosts an active geothermal field, and understanding its structure helps explain how volcanic and tectonic processes interact to create such resources. The authors position the site as a natural laboratory for broader models of caldera dynamics.

Core claim

The LHVC represents an important natural laboratory for the development of general models of volcano-tectonic interaction in calderas, achieved through a 3D structural view enabled by subsurface data from geothermal reservoir exploration.

What carries the argument

The 3D structural view of the volcano system derived from combined surface and subsurface data.

If this is right

Volcano-tectonic interactions in calderas can be studied in detail using this example.
The characteristics of the geothermal resources are tied to the structural features identified.
Similar caldera systems may follow comparable architectural patterns.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

Additional geophysical surveys could test and refine the proposed structural model.
The findings may inform hazard assessment for other volcanic regions with geothermal potential.
Models developed here could apply to calderas in other tectonic settings.

Load-bearing premise

The subsurface data obtained during geothermal reservoir exploration are sufficient and unbiased to produce a reliable 3D structural view of the entire volcano system.

What would settle it

New independent subsurface imaging or drilling results that reveal major structural elements inconsistent with the proposed 3D architecture.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 1907.08799 by Cesar Castro, Domenico Montanari, Fernando Corbo-Camargo, Fidel Cedillo, Gerardo Carrasco Nunez, Giacomo Corti, Gianluca Norini, Giovanna Moratti, Guillermo Chavez, Javier Hernandez Rojas, Javier Lermo, Luigi Piccardi, Marco Bonini, Maria Clara Zuluaga, Miguel Ramirez.

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: P: inferred pressure source inducing caldera resurgence. Color of faults as in Fig. 10b [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p022_4.png] view at source ↗

read the original abstract

The Los Humeros Volcanic Complex (LHVC) is a large silicic caldera complex in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB), hosting a geothermal field currently in exploitation by the Comision Federal de Electricidad (CFE) of Mexico, with an installed capacity of ca. 95 MW of electric power. Understanding the structural architecture of LHVC is important to get insights into the interplay between the volcano-tectonic setting and the characteristics of the geothermal resources in the area. The analysis of volcanotectonic interplay in LHVC benefits from the availability of subsurface data obtained during the exploration of the geothermal reservoir that allows the achievement of a 3D structural view of the volcano system. The LHVC thus represents an important natural laboratory for the development of general models of volcano-tectonic interaction in calderas.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Desk Editor's Note private letter to a colleague

This is a straightforward case study that integrates geothermal well data into a 3D structural map of one caldera; the broader claim that it serves as a general natural laboratory rests on untested assumptions about data coverage.

read the letter

The paper delivers a new 3D structural interpretation of the Los Humeros caldera by combining surface geology with subsurface information from the existing geothermal wells. That synthesis is the actual addition; prior work had not pulled these datasets together for this site in the same way. The integration shows how faults and caldera margins relate to the productive reservoir zones, which is directly relevant to the local geothermal operation and hazard context. Credit to the authors for making use of the well logs and seismic data that are already available rather than calling for new drilling. The methods are standard structural geology applied to a new location, with no new technique or derivation claimed. The central limitation is the sampling. Geothermal wells target high-permeability zones, so the data points cluster in the exploited field rather than providing uniform coverage across the full caldera diameter. The abstract states that the subsurface data allow a 3D view of the entire system, but nothing in the description shows checks for spatial bias, depth distribution, or how peripheral structures are constrained. If the wells miss large sectors, the resulting architecture cannot reliably support general models of volcano-tectonic interaction. This is a minor-to-moderate issue for a local case study but becomes load-bearing for the stronger claim about its value as a natural laboratory. The work is observational and data-driven with no free parameters or circular fitting. Readers focused on Mexican volcanic geology or geothermal reservoir characterization will find the maps and cross-sections useful. It is solid enough for peer review; an editor should send it out so referees can check the actual well distribution and whether the authors qualify the generalizability. I would not bring it to a reading group or cite it myself, but it merits referee time.

Referee Report

1 major / 0 minor

Summary. The manuscript presents a 3D structural model of the Los Humeros Volcanic Complex (LHVC) derived from surface mapping integrated with subsurface data obtained during geothermal reservoir exploration by CFE. It argues that this dataset enables a comprehensive view of volcano-tectonic structures and positions LHVC as an important natural laboratory for general models of caldera interactions.

Significance. If the 3D architecture is shown to be representative across the full caldera, the work could strengthen understanding of how structural features control geothermal permeability and inform broader volcano-tectonic models; the availability of industrial well data is a potential strength for such studies.

major comments (1)

[Abstract] Abstract: the central claim that subsurface geothermal data 'allow the achievement of a 3D structural view of the volcano system' and thus make LHVC 'an important natural laboratory' is load-bearing, yet the text provides no explicit demonstration of uniform spatial distribution, depth coverage, or lack of bias in well locations across the ~20 km caldera diameter; geothermal drilling targets high-permeability zones, raising the risk that peripheral structures are undersampled.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their review and the opportunity to address concerns about the strength of our central claim regarding the 3D structural model. We respond to the major comment below and have made revisions to improve clarity on data coverage and limitations.

read point-by-point responses

Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: the central claim that subsurface geothermal data 'allow the achievement of a 3D structural view of the volcano system' and thus make LHVC 'an important natural laboratory' is load-bearing, yet the text provides no explicit demonstration of uniform spatial distribution, depth coverage, or lack of bias in well locations across the ~20 km caldera diameter; geothermal drilling targets high-permeability zones, raising the risk that peripheral structures are undersampled.

Authors: We agree that the abstract states the claim without an explicit supporting statement on data distribution, and that the full text does not include a dedicated discussion or figure quantifying spatial coverage, depth range, or sampling bias. The manuscript integrates surface mapping with subsurface data from the CFE geothermal exploration program (primarily >50 wells within the exploited field), which does provide 3D constraints on structures in the central and productive portions of the caldera. However, because drilling preferentially targets high-permeability zones, peripheral and non-productive areas are indeed less densely sampled. To address this directly, we will revise the abstract for more measured wording, add a new figure in the methods or results section mapping well locations and depths relative to the caldera outline, and include a short discussion of coverage limitations and the resulting model representativeness. These changes will support the claim for the geothermal field area while acknowledging it is not uniformly distributed across the full ~20 km diameter. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity; purely observational data synthesis

full rationale

The paper is an observational geological study that integrates surface mapping with subsurface well data from geothermal exploration to construct a 3D structural model of the LHVC. No equations, fitted parameters, predictions, or derivations are present. The central claim that the complex serves as a natural laboratory follows directly from the stated availability of the data set rather than from any self-referential reduction, self-citation chain, or ansatz. The skeptic concern about spatial bias in well locations addresses data representativeness but does not constitute circularity in the derivation chain.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the domain assumption that geothermal well data provide an unbiased 3D view of the volcanic structure. No free parameters or invented entities are evident from the abstract.

axioms (1)

domain assumption Subsurface data from geothermal exploration accurately and sufficiently represent the 3D structural architecture of the volcanic complex.
Invoked in the abstract when stating that the availability of subsurface data allows achievement of a 3D structural view.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5729 in / 1137 out tokens · 17373 ms · 2026-05-24T18:44:59.355864+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

15 extracted references · 15 canonical work pages

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Békési E., Fokker P.A., Martins J.E., Limberger J., Bonté D., van Wees J.D. (2019). Production -Induced Subsidence at the Los Humeros Geothermal Field Inferred from PS-InSAR. Geoﬂuids, Volume 2019, 1-12. Branney, M. (1991). Eruption and depositional facies of the Whorneyside Tuff Formation, English Lake District: An exceptionally large-magnitude phreatopl...

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(2014), An unusual syn –eruptive bimodal eruption: The Holocene Cuicuiltic Member at Los Humeros caldera, Mexico

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Eruptive rates and compositional trends at Los Humeros volcanic center, Puebla, Mexico. J. Geophys. Res. 89, 8511–8524. Fitz-Díaz, E., Lawton, T.F., Juárez-Arriaga, E., Chávez-Cabello, G. (2017). The Cretaceous-Paleogene Mexican orogen: Structure, basin development, magmatism and tectonics, Earth-Sci. Rev. Folch, A., Marti, J.,

work page 2017
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Terra Nova 13, 456–462

How hydrofractures become arrested. Terra Nova 13, 456–462. 18/30 Gudmundsson A. (2008), Magma –Chamber Geometry, Fluid Transport, Local Stresses and Rock Behaviour During Collapse Caldera Formation. Developments in Volcanology, 10, 313–349. Gudmundsson, A.,

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Cambridge University Press

Rock Fractures in Geological Processes. Cambridge University Press. Gutiérrez–Negrín, L.C.A., Izquierdo–Montalvo G. (2010), Review and Update of the Main Features of the Los Humeros Geothermal Field, Mexico. Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2010 Bali, Indonesia, 25 –29 April 2010, 1–7. Gutiérrez-Negrín L.C.A. (2019). Current status of geothermal -ele...

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Estudio de la sismicidad del campo geotérmico de Los Humeros, Puebla. Fase III, Informe Técnico Final, Insti tuto de Ingeniería, UNAM, elaborado para la CFE - Gerencia de proyectos Geotermoeléctricos, DEX -HU-00/2001, proyecto 0563, Enero del 2001, Internal report. Lermo, J., Antayhua, Y., Quintanar, L., and Lorenzo, C

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Parte I: Sismicidad, mecanismos de fuente y distribución de esfuerzos, Geotermia, Revista Mexicana de Geoenergía, 21-1, 25-41

Estudio sismológico del campo geotérmic o de Los Humeros, Puebla, México. Parte I: Sismicidad, mecanismos de fuente y distribución de esfuerzos, Geotermia, Revista Mexicana de Geoenergía, 21-1, 25-41. Lermo J., Lorenzo C., Antayhua Y., Ramos E. Jiménez N. (2016). Sísmica pasiva en el campo geotérmico de Los Humeros, Puebla-México y su relación con los poz...

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Routine 2D inversion of magnetotelluric data using the determinant of the impedance tensor. Geophysics, Vol. 70 , (Nº 2), 33–41. Robertson, E., Biggs, J., Cashman, K., & Floyd, M.A. (2015). Influence of regional tectonics and pre -existing structures on the formation of elliptical calderas in the Kenyan Rift. Geological Society Special Publications, 420(1...

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Nonlinear conjugate gradients algorithm for 2 -D magnetotelluric inversion. Geophysics, Vol. 66-1, 174–187. Romo-Jones J.M., Gutiérrez-Negrín L.C., Sánchez-Cornejo C., González Alcántar N., García-Gutiérrez A. (2018). 2017 Mexico Country report. IEA Geothermal, 1-7. Saunders, S.J.,

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The possible contribution of circumferential fault intrusion to caldera resurgence. Bull. Volcanol., 67, 57–71. SGM - Servicio Geológico Mexicano (2010a). Carta Geologico -Minera - Altotonga E14 - B16, Veracruz y Puebla, 1:50,000. 20/30 SGM - Servicio Geológico Mexicano (2010b). Carta Magnetica de campo total - Xonacatlan E14 - B25, Puebla, 1:50,000. SGM ...

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Cambridge University Press

Practical Magnetotellurics. Cambridge University Press. 272 pp. Urban, E., and Lermo, J. (2017), Fracture and stress evaluation using well logs and microseismicity, in the exploitation of Los Humeros geothermal field, México, Geothermal Resources Council 2017 Annual Meeting, octubre 1-4, 2017, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA; Volume 41, pp 1756-1780. Verma, S.P...

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Wadge G.,Biggs J.,Lloyd R., Kendall J.M. (2016). Historical Volcanism and the State of Stress in the East African Rift System. Front. Earth Sci. 4:86, 1-24. Wight D.E., Bostick F.X.,

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( b) Stereographic projection of the fault data measured in outcrop LH2017_108 and solution of the right–dihedra method

(a) NW-SE-striking thrust fault of the sedimentary basement in outcrop LH2017_108. ( b) Stereographic projection of the fault data measured in outcrop LH2017_108 and solution of the right–dihedra method. (c) Stereographic projection and rose diagram of faults and fractures of the sedimentar y basement measured in outcr op LH2017_115. (d) Mafic dike cuttin...

work page 2015
[14]

and interpreted lithological well logs based on Unconformity Bounded Stratigraphic Units (UBSUs). (c) A-A’ and (d) B-B’ schematic geological cross-sections showing the subsurface geometry of the main structures and stra tigraphic units, based on the geological map, structural field data, lithological well logs and geophysical and seismological data discus...

work page 2015
[15]

(c) Perspective view from south of the A -A’ geological cross-section and focal mechanism solution of the 08 February 2016 earthquake

(b) Perspective view from south of t he MT-MT’ profile and A -A’ geological cross-section. (c) Perspective view from south of the A -A’ geological cross-section and focal mechanism solution of the 08 February 2016 earthquake. Legend of the geological cross-section is shown in Figs. 6b and 6d. Legend of the focal mechanism solution is shown in Fig. 8b. Fig...

work page 2016

[1] [1]

Békési E., Fokker P.A., Martins J.E., Limberger J., Bonté D., van Wees J.D. (2019). Production -Induced Subsidence at the Los Humeros Geothermal Field Inferred from PS-InSAR. Geoﬂuids, Volume 2019, 1-12. Branney, M. (1991). Eruption and depositional facies of the Whorneyside Tuff Formation, English Lake District: An exceptionally large-magnitude phreatopl...

work page 2019

[2] [2]

(2014), An unusual syn –eruptive bimodal eruption: The Holocene Cuicuiltic Member at Los Humeros caldera, Mexico

Dávila–Harris, P., Carrasco–Núñez, G. (2014), An unusual syn –eruptive bimodal eruption: The Holocene Cuicuiltic Member at Los Humeros caldera, Mexico. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 271, 24–42. English, J.M., Johnston S.T. (2004), The Laramide Orogeny: What Were the Driving Forces? International Geology Review, 46, 833–838. Ferrari, L., ...

work page 2014

[3] [3]

Eruptive rates and compositional trends at Los Humeros volcanic center, Puebla, Mexico. J. Geophys. Res. 89, 8511–8524. Fitz-Díaz, E., Lawton, T.F., Juárez-Arriaga, E., Chávez-Cabello, G. (2017). The Cretaceous-Paleogene Mexican orogen: Structure, basin development, magmatism and tectonics, Earth-Sci. Rev. Folch, A., Marti, J.,

work page 2017

[4] [4]

Terra Nova 13, 456–462

How hydrofractures become arrested. Terra Nova 13, 456–462. 18/30 Gudmundsson A. (2008), Magma –Chamber Geometry, Fluid Transport, Local Stresses and Rock Behaviour During Collapse Caldera Formation. Developments in Volcanology, 10, 313–349. Gudmundsson, A.,

work page 2008

[5] [5]

Cambridge University Press

Rock Fractures in Geological Processes. Cambridge University Press. Gutiérrez–Negrín, L.C.A., Izquierdo–Montalvo G. (2010), Review and Update of the Main Features of the Los Humeros Geothermal Field, Mexico. Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2010 Bali, Indonesia, 25 –29 April 2010, 1–7. Gutiérrez-Negrín L.C.A. (2019). Current status of geothermal -ele...

work page 2010

[6] [6]

Estudio de la sismicidad del campo geotérmico de Los Humeros, Puebla. Fase III, Informe Técnico Final, Insti tuto de Ingeniería, UNAM, elaborado para la CFE - Gerencia de proyectos Geotermoeléctricos, DEX -HU-00/2001, proyecto 0563, Enero del 2001, Internal report. Lermo, J., Antayhua, Y., Quintanar, L., and Lorenzo, C

work page 2001

[7] [7]

Parte I: Sismicidad, mecanismos de fuente y distribución de esfuerzos, Geotermia, Revista Mexicana de Geoenergía, 21-1, 25-41

Estudio sismológico del campo geotérmic o de Los Humeros, Puebla, México. Parte I: Sismicidad, mecanismos de fuente y distribución de esfuerzos, Geotermia, Revista Mexicana de Geoenergía, 21-1, 25-41. Lermo J., Lorenzo C., Antayhua Y., Ramos E. Jiménez N. (2016). Sísmica pasiva en el campo geotérmico de Los Humeros, Puebla-México y su relación con los poz...

work page 2016

[8] [8]

Geophysics, Vol

Routine 2D inversion of magnetotelluric data using the determinant of the impedance tensor. Geophysics, Vol. 70 , (Nº 2), 33–41. Robertson, E., Biggs, J., Cashman, K., & Floyd, M.A. (2015). Influence of regional tectonics and pre -existing structures on the formation of elliptical calderas in the Kenyan Rift. Geological Society Special Publications, 420(1...

work page 2015

[9] [9]

Geophysics, Vol

Nonlinear conjugate gradients algorithm for 2 -D magnetotelluric inversion. Geophysics, Vol. 66-1, 174–187. Romo-Jones J.M., Gutiérrez-Negrín L.C., Sánchez-Cornejo C., González Alcántar N., García-Gutiérrez A. (2018). 2017 Mexico Country report. IEA Geothermal, 1-7. Saunders, S.J.,

work page 2018

[10] [10]

The possible contribution of circumferential fault intrusion to caldera resurgence. Bull. Volcanol., 67, 57–71. SGM - Servicio Geológico Mexicano (2010a). Carta Geologico -Minera - Altotonga E14 - B16, Veracruz y Puebla, 1:50,000. 20/30 SGM - Servicio Geológico Mexicano (2010b). Carta Magnetica de campo total - Xonacatlan E14 - B25, Puebla, 1:50,000. SGM ...

work page 2014

[11] [11]

Cambridge University Press

Practical Magnetotellurics. Cambridge University Press. 272 pp. Urban, E., and Lermo, J. (2017), Fracture and stress evaluation using well logs and microseismicity, in the exploitation of Los Humeros geothermal field, México, Geothermal Resources Council 2017 Annual Meeting, octubre 1-4, 2017, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA; Volume 41, pp 1756-1780. Verma, S.P...

work page 2017

[12] [12]

Wadge G.,Biggs J.,Lloyd R., Kendall J.M. (2016). Historical Volcanism and the State of Stress in the East African Rift System. Front. Earth Sci. 4:86, 1-24. Wight D.E., Bostick F.X.,

work page 2016

[13] [13]

( b) Stereographic projection of the fault data measured in outcrop LH2017_108 and solution of the right–dihedra method

(a) NW-SE-striking thrust fault of the sedimentary basement in outcrop LH2017_108. ( b) Stereographic projection of the fault data measured in outcrop LH2017_108 and solution of the right–dihedra method. (c) Stereographic projection and rose diagram of faults and fractures of the sedimentar y basement measured in outcr op LH2017_115. (d) Mafic dike cuttin...

work page 2015

[14] [14]

and interpreted lithological well logs based on Unconformity Bounded Stratigraphic Units (UBSUs). (c) A-A’ and (d) B-B’ schematic geological cross-sections showing the subsurface geometry of the main structures and stra tigraphic units, based on the geological map, structural field data, lithological well logs and geophysical and seismological data discus...

work page 2015

[15] [15]

(c) Perspective view from south of the A -A’ geological cross-section and focal mechanism solution of the 08 February 2016 earthquake

(b) Perspective view from south of t he MT-MT’ profile and A -A’ geological cross-section. (c) Perspective view from south of the A -A’ geological cross-section and focal mechanism solution of the 08 February 2016 earthquake. Legend of the geological cross-section is shown in Figs. 6b and 6d. Legend of the focal mechanism solution is shown in Fig. 8b. Fig...

work page 2016