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On the rapid growth of SMBHs in high-z galaxies: the aftermath of Population III.1 stars

T0 review · 3 major / 6 minor · reviewed 2026-08-06 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read In cosmological simulations, 10^5 solar-mass seeds of Population III.1 origin grow to roughly 10^7 solar masses by z=8 under every AGN feedback model tested, with radiative feedback driving outflows beyond 2500 km/s.

desk verdict A solid simulation study with a genuinely useful feedback decomposition; the masses rest on an untested Bondi-Hoyle assumption and a single halo, but the qualitative conclusions should survive a serious referee. read the letter →

arxiv 2507.02058 v1 pith:7MLQEQX3 submitted 2025-07-02 astro-ph.GA

Mahsa Sanati , Julien Devriendt , SergioMartin-Alvarez , Adrianne Slyz , Jonathan C. Tan This is my paper
classification astro-ph.GA
keywords supermassiveblackholegrowthPopulationIII.1starsAGNfeedbackcosmologicalzoom-insimulationsradiativetransferhigh-redshiftgalaxiessuper-Eddingtonaccretionovermassiveholes
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper asks whether active galactic nucleus (AGN) feedback prevents the first heavy black hole seeds from growing into supermassive black holes by the time the Universe is about 600 million years old. Using high-resolution zoom-in cosmological simulations, the authors start with a $10^{5}$ solar-mass seed left behind by a Population III.1 star and switch on AGN feedback in progressive stages: none, Eddington-limited thermal, thermal plus kinetic winds, and finally radiation. In every feedback model the seed reaches a mass near $10^{7}$ solar masses by redshift 8, so feedback regulates but does not stop the growth. The simulation with radiation feedback also launches fast, mass-loaded outflows extending to about 50 kpc, and the predicted overmassive black holes match moderate-luminosity quasars observed by JWST. The result matters because it offers a concrete path from heavy seeds to the supermassive black holes already seen in the early Universe.

What carries the argument

The argument is carried by a suite of zoom-in cosmological simulations that follow a single dark matter minihalo from z=100 to z=8 with roughly 14 pc maximum cell size, resolving the Bondi radius around the black hole. The seed is a $10^{5}$ solar-mass sink particle whose progenitor is a Population III.1 star; the star's ionizing feedback is modelled self-consistently before collapse, capturing the preheating that sets the initial accretion environment. Black hole growth uses the Bondi-Hoyle-Lyttleton rate computed from cloud particles within roughly 40 pc, and AGN feedback is injected as thermal energy, kinetic winds, and radiation through a radiative transfer scheme with three photon groups. The decisive comparison is across model variants that build up feedback components one at a time, isolating which mechanism regulates accretion and which launches outflows.

What would settle it

Repeat the most complete feedback simulation with an accretion model that accounts for angular momentum transport at scales below about 40 pc, for example by limiting accretion to the rate at which a resolved nuclear disk can lose angular momentum; if the black hole then ends z=8 below roughly $10^{7}$ solar masses, the central claim is refuted. An observational counterpart would be long-cadence monitoring of z~8 overmassive black holes: if sustained super-Eddington accretion, rather than short episodic bursts, is required to explain their masses, the simulated feedback cycle is disfavoured.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that heavy seeds of $10^{5}$ solar masses, formed from the collapse of Population III.1 stars after their ionizing radiation preheats the host minihalo, grow efficiently to roughly $10^{7}$ solar masses by z=8 regardless of how AGN feedback is modelled. The growth is not a single sustained burst: it proceeds through cycles in which super-Eddington accretion episodes, reaching up to about 86 times the Eddington rate, trigger AGN feedback that temporarily suppresses accretion before the next inflow. Across the feedback-regulated models the black hole-to-stellar mass ratio stays between 0.01 and 1, consistent with the overmassive black holes that JWST finds in low-mass galaxies at z>4. The authors conclude that AGN feedback, especially the radiative component, shapes the host galaxy by driving high-velocity winds and slightly suppressing star formation, while allowing the seed to reach supermassive scales within the reionisation era.

Load-bearing premise

The whole result rests on the assumption that gas measured about 40 parsecs from the black hole is actually available to fall in at the computed accretion rate, with no unresolved angular momentum or small-scale feedback withholding it.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • Seeds of 10^5 solar masses reach roughly 10^7 solar masses by z=8 even with strong AGN feedback, so no artificially boosted accretion is needed to explain moderate-luminosity high-redshift quasars.
  • AGN feedback regulates black hole growth through high-accretion, strong-feedback, low-accretion cycles rather than shutting it off, keeping accretion near the Eddington limit.
  • Radiative feedback, not thermal or kinetic feedback alone, is required to launch the fastest outflows, which exceed 2500 km/s and extend to about 50 kpc.
  • The simulated black-hole-to-stellar-mass ratios, from 0.01 to 1, reproduce the overmassive black holes seen by JWST and deviate from local scaling relations in the same direction.
  • Super-Eddington episodes are short-lived and often merger-triggered, leaving average Eddington ratios of about 0.2 to 0.3 over the full growth history.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the Bondi prescription overestimates the gas supply because unresolved angular momentum keeps gas in a disc around the black hole, the same seeds would grow more slowly; a direct test would be to repeat one run with accretion limited by resolved angular momentum transport and check whether 10^7 solar masses by z=8 survives.
  • The preheating result extends beyond Pop III.1 seeds: any formation pathway in which the host halo is heated before the black hole forms, such as externally irradiated direct-collapse halos, should show a similar short delay followed by rapid Eddington-limited growth.
  • The predicted outflow velocities and mass-loading factors give a concrete target for future observations: the fastest outflows should appear in galaxies where the black hole is undergoing a post-merger super-Eddington episode.
  • Because the simulations reach 10^7 solar masses by z=8, the same model could be run forward to test whether these black holes end up as the central engines of local dwarf galaxies or grow into the seeds of more massive systems.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 6 minor

Summary. NA

Significance. If the central growth claim is robust, this is a valuable contribution: it provides a physically motivated pathway from Pop III.1 seeds to the overmassive BHs seen by JWST at z>8, and it isolates the role of radiative AGN feedback in driving galaxy-scale outflows. Strengths include the systematic variation of feedback physics in a consistent code framework, self-consistent modeling of the Pop III.1 progenitor and its preheating effect, a freely moving BH with resolved dynamical friction, and direct comparison to current JWST samples. The growth predictions are not circular: the feedback efficiencies and seed mass are not tuned to the JWST data. However, the conclusions rest on a single halo and on a Bondi-Hoyle accretion prescription with no angular-momentum-aware subgrid model, and the paper lacks resolution or convergence tests. These gaps make the quantitative claims (e.g., ~10^7 Msun by z=8, outflow velocities and extents) less secure than the presentation suggests.

major comments (3)
  1. [Sec. 2, Eqs. (4)-(9)] The Bondi-Hoyle accretion prescription is the load-bearing element for the central growth claim, but it contains no subgrid angular-momentum limiter and the claim that the resolution is sufficient to capture the Bondi radius is only marginal. For a 10^5 Msun seed, the Bondi radius is ~4 pc for c_s = 10 km/s and ~0.5 pc for c_s = 30 km/s, while the physical cell size at z~8 is about 1.6 pc and r_cloud = 4 Delta x is only a few pc. If gas at the sink-kernel scale is rotationally supported, the true accretion rate can be much lower than the Bondi rate, and a factor-of-several reduction would pull the final masses below the claimed ~10^7 Msun by z=8. The paper provides no convergence study, no sink-radius sensitivity test, and no comparison with an angular-momentum-aware accretion model. I ask the authors to include at least one resolution test and one test with a rotational-support limiter (e.g., the prescriptions of Rosas-Guevara et al. 2015 or Tremmel et al. 2017) to establish that the central growth result is not an artifact of the unresolved accretion model.
  2. [Sec. 3.4 and Fig. 5] The outflow claim is attributed to 'AGN-driven radiation pressure' (Sec. 3.4, Fig. 5 caption), but Sec. 2's description of AGN radiation only states that ionizing photon energy is released (Eq. 11, based on Bieri et al. 2017). No radiation-pressure or photon-momentum deposition term is described in the methods. If the code does include radiation pressure, this should be stated explicitly; if it does not, the attribution should be revised to photoionization heating and the resulting pressure gradients, which is the mechanism actually supported by the equations presented. This matters because the fast, kpc-scale outflows in ThermKinRad are a headline result.
  3. [Sec. 2 (Initial conditions) and Sec. 3.1] All conclusions are drawn from a single zoom-in halo, and the paper acknowledges (Sec. 3.1) that differences among the four feedback-regulated models are 'comparable to those arising from stochastic effects.' Without at least one resolution test and ideally a second halo or an explicit discussion of halo-to-halo variance, the broad claims 'across all our models' and the quantitative agreement with JWST samples in Figs. 3 and 9 are not fully supported. This is not a request for a full statistical sample, but the lack of any convergence test leaves the central claim vulnerable to numerical resolution effects.
minor comments (6)
  1. [Abstract and Sec. 3.1] The abstract states that seeds reach ~10^7 Msun by z=8 across all models, but the Edd_lim model reaches ~5x10^8 Msun by z~9, and the NoAGN and Therm runs are stopped at z~11, so their z=8 values are not shown. Please qualify the statement to reflect the actual model sample and final redshift.
  2. [Throughout] The model names are used inconsistently: ThermHEKin/ThermHEKinRad vs ThermHKin/ThermHKinRad, and ThermKinRT vs ThermKinRad. Please adopt a single naming convention in the text, tables, figures, and captions.
  3. [Sec. 2] The quoted cell width of ~14 pc and cloud radius of ~40 pc should specify whether they are comoving or physical; this is directly relevant to the Bondi-radius resolution argument. At z=8, the physical cell size is ~1.6 pc, which is important for evaluating the claim in Sec. 2.
  4. [Fig. 1 caption] The caption contains sentence fragments and a typo ('ThemKinRad'); it also lists symbols without defining them in the caption. Please make the caption self-contained and grammatically complete.
  5. [Sec. 3.5] There is a typo 'sftar formation' in the last paragraph; also, 'ThermHEKinRad' appears where 'ThermHKinRad' or 'ThermHEKinRad' should be used consistently.
  6. [Abstract and Sec. 4] The abstract reports stellar masses of ~10^8.5 Msun, while Sec. 4 states a host galaxy stellar mass of ~5x10^8 Msun; please reconcile these values or clarify which mass (e.g., within 0.15 Rvir vs total) is being quoted.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the claimed BH growth and JWST comparison emerge from the simulations rather than being imposed by construction or by load-bearing self-citations.

full rationale

The paper's central claims are the BH mass growth to ~1e7 Msun by z=8 and the AGN-feedback-driven outflow properties. These are outputs of the simulation pipeline, not inputs. The Bondi-Hoyle accretion rate (Eqs. 4-9) is a stated physical prescription with fixed kernel choices; no parameter is fitted to the JWST data used for comparison, and the AGN feedback efficiencies (Table 1) are fixed model variations, not calibrated to reproduce the observed BH masses or Eddington ratios. The Pop III.1 seed mass (1e5 Msun) and the feedback efficiencies are adopted from prior work, including self-citations (Banik et al. 2019; Sanati et al. submitted), but they serve as initial conditions and experimental parameters; the growth outcome is integrated dynamically and, as Appendix A states, "all memory of the seeding scenario is deleted from the growth rate in less than ~100 Myr", showing that the final masses are not forced by the seed choice. Neither the self-citations nor the cited Pop III.1 framework are used to forbid alternatives or to invoke an external theorem that would make the conclusions definitional; the paper itself generalizes to other preheating scenarios. The reader's concern about missing sub-grid angular momentum in the Bondi prescription is a modeling assumption and a possible robustness limitation, but it is not a circularity: the accretion rate is not constructed to equal the observed target masses. The comparison with JWST quasars is an a posteriori consistency check, and the scaling relations are measured outputs, so no fitted-input-called-prediction pattern is present. Overall, the derivation chain is self-contained with respect to the claims being made.

Assumptions & free parameters 7 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on a handful of adopted efficiencies and scenario assumptions. None are fitted to the JWST data used for comparison, but the Bondi accretion model and Pop III.1 seed mass are load-bearing for the predicted growth.

free parameters (7)
  • AGN thermal feedback efficiency = eps_f,therm = 0.15
    Chosen from Horizon-AGN (Dubois et al. 2012); affects thermal energy injection in quasar mode (Eq. 10).
  • AGN kinetic feedback efficiency (weak) = eps_f,kin = 0.15
    Chosen to represent weak radio mode; used in ThermKin and ThermKinRad.
  • AGN kinetic feedback efficiency (strong) = eps_f,kin = 0.85
    Chosen to represent strong radio mode; used in ThermHEKin and ThermHEKinRad.
  • AGN radiative feedback efficiency = eps_f,rt = 0.70
    Adopted from Bieri et al. (2017); sets fraction of AGN luminosity emitted as ionizing radiation in quasar mode.
  • BH seed mass = 10^5 M_sun
    Fixed by the Pop III.1 progenitor scenario (Banik et al. 2019); the seed mass is an input, not fitted.
  • Reduced speed of light = 0.2c
    Chosen to make radiative transfer computationally feasible; affects RT propagation (Section 2).
  • Kinetic feedback injection velocity = 10^4 km/s
    Chosen for momentum deposition in radio mode; affects momentum injection but not total energy.
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption Bondi-Hoyle accretion formula describes the BH gas supply at unresolved scales
    Used in Section 2 (Eqs. 4-6). Assumes no angular momentum barrier; central to growth rates.
  • domain assumption Pop III.1 stars collapse into SMBH seeds of 10^5 M_sun with high efficiency
    Section 2 'The SMBHs formation'; borrowed from prior work (Banik et al. 2019; Tan et al. 2024).
  • domain assumption AGN feedback energy deposition follows Eq. 10 with chosen efficiencies
    Section 2 'AGN feedback quasar and radio modes'; depends on adopted eps_f values.
  • domain assumption Reduced speed of light approximation (0.2c) is sufficient for ISM RT
    Section 2 Radiative Transfer; cited to Rosdahl et al. (2013).
  • domain assumption Ideal MHD with primordial seed field 10^-21 G is adequate
    Section 2 Ideal MHD; assumes no non-ideal sources at galactic scales.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of On the rapid growth of SMBHs in high-z galaxies: the aftermath of Population III.1 stars." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/7MLQEQX3

@misc{pith2026250702058,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: On the rapid growth of SMBHs in high-z galaxies: the aftermath of Population III.1 stars},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/7MLQEQX3}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2507.02058}
}
abstract

The vast amount of energy released by active galactic nuclei (AGN) is increasingly recognized as a key driver of evolution not only in massive galaxies and clusters, but also in low-mass dwarf galaxies. Despite this, their role in the early stages of galaxy formation and in self-regulating the rapid growth of the first and abundant supermassive black holes (SMBHs) remains poorly understood. Through new high-resolution zoom-in cosmological simulations, we follow the co-evolution of $10^5 M_\odot$ black hole seeds with their host galaxy. The simulated suite progressively spans physics ranging from no AGN feedback and Eddington-limited thermal feedback, to more complex setups including non-Eddington-limited thermal, kinetic and radiative feedback. Across all our models, we find that black hole seeds efficiently reach masses of $\sim10^7 M_\odot$ by z=8. Although they exhibit notably different mass growth histories, these latter seem unimpeded by the presence of AGN feedback. The simulation including radiative feedback is the most distinct, with super-Eddington episodes driving fast and mass-loaded gas outflows (exceeding 2500 km $s^{-1}$) up to $\sim$50 kpc, along with minor stellar mass suppression in the host galaxy. Our measurements are in broad agreement with moderate luminosity quasars recently observed by JWST, producing overmassive black holes, dynamical masses of $\sim10^{9.5} M_\odot$, and high, though short-lived, Eddington fraction accretion rates. These results advocate for a scenario where AGN feedback allows for rapid SMBH growth during the reionisation era, while driving winds that extend deep into the intergalactic medium - shaping host galaxies as well as more distant surroundings.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2507.02058 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. The effect of AGN feedback components on the time evolution of BH-galaxy properties. From top to bottom, the rows display BH mass, Eddington fraction, gas mass, gas net flow, star formation rate, and stellar mass, within 0.15 𝑅vir. The BH masses are compared to the progenitor mass of observed quasars at redshifts 𝑧 > 8 (Larson et al. 2023; Kokorev et al. 2023; Maiolino et al. 2024b; Kovács et al. 2024; Bogdán et al.… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Probability distribution function (PDF) of the Eddington fraction, 𝜆Edd. The accretion rate vary depending on the AGN feedback model. The BH in all models primarily grows through accretion rates that are below and comparable to the Eddington limit. Only a small fraction of the BH mass grows through super-Eddington accretion rates with the maximum of 𝜆Edd = 86. 3 RESULTS 3.1 The role of AGN feedback in BH-galaxy co-e… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. The Eddington fraction versus BH mass compared to the observed JDEEP sample in yellow hexagons. 𝑀¤ BH represents the black hole accretion rate following the Bondi-Hoyle model, while the 𝑀¤ Edd represents the accretion to the black hole if it follows the Eddington limit. The green line shows Edd_lim model where the AGN activity is Eddington limited. In other models the accretion is self-regulated by different feedbac… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (6 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Time evolution of the BH relative displacement with respect to the center of the galaxy, and its variation depending on the AGN feedback model. For the BH to grow efficiently, its trajectory must intersect with dense gas clouds, primarily concentrated in the central re…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Radial velocity distribution of outflowing gas within a physical radius of 6 kpc (equivalent to the white circle in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_6.png]
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Density-weighted projection of gas density in gray, separated into inflowing gas in blue with radial velocity 𝑣𝑟 < −30 km s−1 , and high speed outflowing gas in red with 𝑣𝑟 > 300 km s−1 , and low speed outflowing gas in green with 𝑣𝑟 > 30 km s−1 . In the ThemKinRad mod…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Merger event between redshifts 𝑧 ∼ 11 and 8. The panels from left to right show the ThermKin, ThermKinRad, ThermHKin, and ThermHKinRad models, respectively. The redshift range is selected to showcase the stellar distribution in the main halo of the galaxy hosting the B…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Galaxy and BH properties, before and after a merger event between redshift 𝑧 ∼ 11 and 8, in feedback-regulated models. First panel) The stellar mass of the main galaxy hosting the BH, and that of its satellite are shown by stars connected by solid and dashed lines, res…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: shows the co-evolution of the host galaxy properties with the mass of their hosted BH. The top panel shows the evolution of stellar mass, represented by solid lines, with circles indicating the final stellar at redshift 𝑧 = 8. Straight dashed-dotted lines in dark blue …

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Reference graph

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 6, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.