Pith. sign in

REVIEW 5 major objections 6 minor 26 references

Water evaporation-driven dynamic diode for direct electricity generation

T0 review · 5 major / 6 minor · reviewed 2026-08-06 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗ Review JSON

Pith's one-line read This paper claims that evaporation-driven polarization and depolarization of water molecules at a graphene–water–silicon interface produces sustained direct current, with voltage magnitude and polarity set by the Fermi level difference…

desk verdict Incremental hydrovoltaic variant with a plausible but under-supported mechanism; the device data are real, but the 'fundamentally new' claim overreaches. read the letter →

arxiv 2507.03874 v1 pith:XOUXTYDX submitted 2025-07-05 physics.atom-ph

Jiarui Guo , Xuanzhang Hao , Yuxia Yang , Shaoqi Huang , Zhihao Qian , Minhui Yang , Hanming Wu , Liangti Qu
show 2 more authors
Novoselov Kostya S Shisheng Lin
This is my paper · ORCID
classification physics.atom-ph
keywords waterevaporationdirectcurrentgenerationdynamicdiodeinterfacialpolarizationgraphene-water-siliconinterfaceFermileveldifferencehydrovoltaicenergyharvestingcorrosion-freepower
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper claims that ordinary water, evaporating inside a graphene–water–silicon sandwich, can generate steady direct current without ions, moving parts, or corrosion. The proposed engine is a 'dynamic diode': the difference in electron energy levels between graphene and silicon aligns water molecules at the interface, and as evaporation shrinks the liquid film the molecules relax and release stored charge, repeating the cycle continuously. The paper reports about 0.35 V and 80 nA per 2 cm × 1 cm cell, with four cells in series reaching about 1.2 V, which would put small water-based sources in reach of floating sensors and low-power electronics. If the mechanism is right, voltage polarity becomes a design parameter set by electrode choice, and any polar liquid can serve as fuel.

What carries the argument

The carrying object is the dynamic diode: a graphene–water–semiconductor interface in which the Fermi level difference $\Delta E_F$ between graphene and silicon sets up opposing charge reservoirs and aligns the electric dipoles of water molecules, while evaporation-driven contraction of the 100-µm water film flips that alignment, depolarizes the molecules, and releases trapped carriers as a unidirectional current. The interface re-polarizes as fresh water wicks in, so the device is claimed to cycle continuously rather than charging up once. A secondary structural element is graphene's role as the top electrode: it provides the work-function offset that sets $\Delta E_F$ and simultaneously enhances evaporation kinetics and interfacial contact, which the paper tunes by varying the silicon–graphene spacing with an optimum near 100 µm.

What would settle it

Seal a working cell in an airtight chamber already saturated with water vapor so that evaporation stops while the liquid remains in contact with both electrodes: if voltage and current persist for hours, the dipole-flipping cycle is not what sustains them. A second decisive check is replacing the water with a nonpolar liquid of similar wetting behaviour (hexane, which the paper reports as silent): the dipole mechanism predicts no output, whereas a purely capillary or wetting-driven effect should still register.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that evaporation-driven polarization and depolarization of water molecules at a graphene–water–silicon interface produces sustained direct current, with open-circuit voltage (about 0.35 V per cell) and its polarity set by the Fermi level difference between the electrodes. In the authors' picture, the Fermi level difference first aligns water dipoles and builds opposing charge reservoirs at the two interfaces; evaporation then contracts the liquid film, depolarizes the molecules, and releases the trapped carriers as current, after which fresh water re-polarizes and the cycle repeats. Evidence offered includes linear scaling of output voltage with measured Fermi level differences across graphene, copper, silver, and aluminum electrodes; voltage ordering of polar liquids by dipole moment with no response from nonpolar liquids; suppression of output by dissolved salt; and a 12-hour continuous operation test. The paper positions this nonionic, corrosion-free 'dynamic diode' as distinct from ion-mediated hydrovoltaic generators and as a generalizable interfacial-polarization strategy, demonstrated on a floating prototype and a four-cell series stack delivering about 1.2 V.

Load-bearing premise

The whole generator rests on the premise that each evaporation-driven cycle of water molecules lining up and then relaxing is what produces the measured current, yet the paper never tests a device with evaporation suppressed; slow capillary wetting, electrode asymmetry, or a one-time redistribution of charge could in principle produce the same 12-hour output.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • Voltage polarity and magnitude become a design parameter: choosing any electrode with a known work function relative to silicon predicts the sign and rough size of the output, making positive and negative DC sources from the same architecture.
  • Series connection is shown to reach electronics-compatible voltages (about 1.2 V from four cells), and the floating and vertically immersed prototypes point to self-sustained power for water-surface sensors and IoT nodes.
  • Because the mechanism is nonionic and corrosion-free, the architecture should maintain long-term stability in ambient water, avoiding the electrode degradation that limits electrolyte-based harvesters.
  • The same physics is claimed to generalize to any polar liquid, with output ordered by dipole moment, and to combine with solar illumination (0.75 V and 1.05 µA at 50 W/m²), so evaporation and light can be harvested by the same cell.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • My inference: the cleanest test the paper leaves undone is an evaporation-suppressed control; if the authors' dipole-cycling picture is right, output should collapse to zero in saturated vapor, whereas a streaming- or wetting-based account would show only a gradual decline.
  • My inference: at about 30 nW per cell (0.35 V × 80 nA), the demonstrated output is a proof of mechanism, not of useful power; the practical claim would need current to scale with cell area and evaporation rate, which the paper does not report.
  • My inference: swapping water for heavy water (D₂O) would be a sharp discriminator — heavy water's altered hydrogen-bond network and dipole dynamics should change the output if molecular polarization drives the effect, while a purely capillary explanation would leave it nearly unchanged.
  • My inference: the Fermi-level coupling is asserted to act through a 100-µm water film without a quantitative electrostatic model; a dedicated experiment varying electrode work function across a wider range at fixed evaporation rate would either confirm the linear $\Delta E_F$ scaling or reveal that the real driver is the electrode–water contact difference, not dipole flipping.
Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Signed reviews

No signed human review yet.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

5 major / 6 minor

Summary. The manuscript reports a water-evaporation-driven direct-current generator built from a graphene–water–silicon 'dynamic diode' architecture. The authors propose that evaporation drives a cyclic polarization and depolarization of water dipoles at the liquid–solid interfaces, producing sustained charge separation and unidirectional current. They report about 0.35 V open-circuit voltage from a 2 cm × 1 cm cell, 80 nA short-circuit current, a linear dependence of voltage on the electrode Fermi-level difference, suppression of output for nonpolar liquids and for high salt concentrations, and a four-cell series device delivering ~1.2 V. The paper claims a new nonionic mechanism governed by Fermi-level difference, evaporation kinetics, and interfacial dipole orientation, and suggests scalability for self-powered aqueous electronics.

Significance. If the proposed mechanism holds, the work would extend hydrovoltaic energy conversion to a nonionic, corrosion-free regime with programmable voltage polarity, which could be technologically relevant for low-power floating or marine sensors. The paper contains several commendable empirical checks: voltage polarity reverses with the sign of the literature work-function difference between electrode and silicon; nonpolar liquids produce no measurable output; salt addition suppresses the signal; and the 12-hour stability test suggests a reproducible, non-degrading behavior. However, the central quantitative claim—that sustained DC arises from repeated dipole flipping driven by evaporation—is not established, because key control experiments are missing and the electrostatic model is not quantified. The work is therefore a promising but unverified contribution that needs substantial additional measurements and modeling before its mechanistic conclusions can be accepted.

major comments (5)
  1. [Device Performance and Environmental Response (Fig. 3b)] No control experiment with evaporation suppressed (e.g., sealed chamber or saturated vapor atmosphere) is reported. Without such a control, the continuous 12-hour output could be caused by slow capillary wetting, electrode asymmetry, or a one-time charge redistribution after droplet injection, rather than by repeated polarization–depolarization cycles. This control is load-bearing for the central 'dynamic diode' claim and should be performed and reported.
  2. [Device Performance and Environmental Response (Fig. 3c–d)] The temperature and illumination experiments do not vary evaporation rate independently of other physical parameters. Raising temperature changes water's dielectric constant, ionic activity, and contact-line dynamics as well as evaporation rate; illumination introduces photothermal heating and photo-excitation of silicon and graphene. The attribution of the output enhancement to 'synergistic photothermal acceleration of evaporation kinetics and photo-enhanced polarization' is therefore not supported without experiments that decouple these channels, for example by controlling vapor pressure at fixed temperature or using non-absorbing illumination wavelengths.
  3. [Mechanistic Insights: Polarization-Driven Charge Generation (Fig. 2d)] The claim of linear scaling of open-circuit voltage with ΔEF is based on only four data points, and one point (Al) is adjusted by an 'effective ΔEF enhancement' from native Al2O3 with no independent measurement. No regression statistics or error bars are given. Moreover, a linear voltage-versus-work-function-difference relation is also what a passive capacitor formed by graphene and silicon across a water film would produce if the water merely acts as a dielectric with a slowly varying ionic/dipolar distribution; it is not by itself evidence for a dipole-flipping cycle. The authors should provide a quantitative electrostatic model connecting ΔEF to the measured Voc and predict the effect of water-layer thickness and ionic strength.
  4. [Abstract and Introduction (10¹⁰ V/cm claim)] The paper repeatedly invokes a built-in electric field 'up to 10¹⁰ V/cm' from polar molecules such as water. This value is asserted without measurement, derivation, or citation, and it is orders of magnitude above typical interfacial fields for water dipoles (which are of order 10⁹–10¹⁰ V/m, i.e., 10⁷–10⁸ V/cm). The authors should either justify this number by explicit calculation, provide a direct experimental estimate, or remove it; as written, it undermines confidence in the quantitative framing of the mechanism.
  5. [Mechanistic Insights: Polarization-Driven Charge Generation (Fig. 2e)] The comparison of polar and nonpolar liquids conflates dipole moment with evaporation kinetics and wetting properties. CCl₄ and hexane have much higher vapor pressures and different contact angles on graphene and silicon than water, and the evaporation-driven receding of the three-phase contact line—not the static dipole moment—may be the controlling variable. Since the authors do not report evaporation-rate data for each liquid, the hierarchy H₂O > ethanol > acetone > isopropanol > nonpolar liquids is not sufficient to establish that 'molecular polarization' rather than evaporation kinetics is the core engine.
minor comments (6)
  1. [Introduction vs. Results (series output)] The Introduction states a 'scalable outputs reaching electronics-compatible 1.4 V' while the Results and Conclusion report 1.2 V from four series-connected units; this inconsistency should be reconciled.
  2. [Fig. 2d] The figure apparently shows a linear fit, but no equation, R² value, or error bars are given in the text; please include these or state that only a guide-to-the-eye is shown.
  3. [Fig. 4b caption] The caption refers to 'red (blue) curves' for smoothed current (voltage), but the figure panel and legend are not reproduced in the text; please ensure the color convention is legible in the final version.
  4. [Mechanistic Insights (Fig. 2f)] The claim that the voltage drops from ~0.3 V at 0.1 mol/L NaCl to ~0.05 V at 1.0 mol/L is presented as a monotonic trend, but no error bars or replicate numbers are given; please report the standard deviation and number of devices tested.
  5. [Mechanistic Insights: 'coordination number ≈3.8'] The statement that water's tetrahedral network has coordination number ≈3.8 is given without a citation; please provide a reference or present it as a qualitative statement.
  6. [General formatting] The abstract uses '10E10 V/cm' where 10¹⁰ is meant; please use standard superscript formatting throughout.

Circularity Check

2 steps flagged · score 6.0 of 10

Partial circularity: the Fermi-level voltage scaling is a contact-potential identity, and the Al2O3 'enhancement' absorbs the fit residual; evaporation/dipole data retain some independent content.

  1. self definitional [Results and Discussion, 'Mechanistic Insights: Polarization-Driven Charge Generation' (Fig. 2c-d)]
    "Systematic experiments with metal-water-silicon heterostructures confirm that both sign and magnitude of ΔEF dictate output characteristics.25,26 Under controlled conditions (25°C, 45% RH), silicon (work function: 4.34 eV) paired with various electrodes —graphene (4.60 eV), Cu (4.48 eV), Ag (4.26 eV), and Al (4.28 eV) —yields voltages scaling linearly with ΔEF (Figures 2c-d)."

    In a non-electrolyte two-electrode cell separated by a dielectric water film, the open-circuit voltage is, by definition, the work-function (Fermi-level) difference between the electrodes. Therefore a linear Voc versus ΔEF plot is the contact-potential identity, not an independent test of the proposed evaporation-driven polarization-depolarization cycle. The paper presents this correlation as confirmation that ΔEF 'dictates' the dynamic-diode output, but the measured voltage is the same quantity as the input ΔEF, so the 'prediction' reduces to the device construction.

  2. fitted input called prediction [Mechanistic Insights, Fig. 2d (Al electrode discussion)]
    "Notably, the native Al2O3 layer on aluminum enhances effective ΔEF, boosting output by ~18% versus theoretical predictions (Figure 2d)."

    The 'theoretical prediction' is evidently based on the bare metal work-function difference. The discrepancy between that prediction and the measured voltage is then absorbed by introducing an 'effective ΔEF' modified by Al2O3. Because the paper provides no independent measurement or calculation of the Al2O3-modified ΔEF, the reported 18% 'boost' is the same residual being re-labeled as a physical enhancement — a fitted input presented as a predicted effect.

full rationale

The paper's central energy-harvesting claim — sustained DC from evaporation-driven dipole flipping — is not entirely circular: the polar/nonpolar liquid comparison, the NaCl concentration dependence, and the 12-hour stability are independent observations that a pure contact-potential artifact would not automatically explain. However, the key 'theoretical' validation in Fig. 2 reduces to the contact-potential identity: with non-electrolyte water between graphene and silicon, the open-circuit voltage is set by the work-function difference by construction, so reporting Voc proportional to ΔEF is a restatement of the input, not evidence for the dynamic-diode polarization cycle. The Al2O3 '18% enhancement' is a post-hoc effective-ΔEF adjustment absorbing the residual. The same-group citations (refs 10-13, 26) supply the dynamic-PN-junction vocabulary, but the present measurements carry independent weight; the circularity is therefore partial, not total.

Assumptions & free parameters 2 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central mechanism rests on several unmeasured assumptions: that the Fermi level difference acts across the water film, that evaporation cycles dipole alignment at the contact line, and that literature work functions describe the wetted interfaces. The only fitted quantities are the effective Al2O3 ΔEF correction and the empirical voltage-to-ΔEF proportionality. No new physical entity is introduced; the dynamic diode is a label for the same dynamic water-semiconductor junction described in refs 10 to 13 and 26.

free parameters (2)
  • Effective ΔEF enhancement from native Al2O3 = ~18%
    Used in Fig. 2d to reconcile the measured Al/Si voltage (0.3 V) with the predicted value from the bare Al work function; no independent measurement of the oxide-modified work function.
  • Voltage-to-ΔEF conversion factor = roughly 0.4 V per 0.26 eV for graphene/Si
    Claimed linear scaling is obtained from four electrode pairs; the proportionality constant is data-dependent and not derived.
assumptions (4)
  • domain assumption The Fermi level difference between graphene and silicon is the primary driver of charge separation through the water layer.
    Assumed throughout the mechanism section; no electrostatic model connects ΔEF across a 100 micrometer water film to the measured voltage.
  • domain assumption Evaporation causes repeated, cyclic depolarization of water dipoles at the three-phase contact line, sustaining a steady DC current.
    Invoked in Figure 2b and the mechanism discussion; no in-situ measurement of dipole orientation or contact-line cycling is provided.
  • domain assumption Water's tetrahedral hydrogen-bond network (coordination number about 3.8) is responsible for its higher output versus alcohols.
    Used to explain the voltage hierarchy H2O > EtOH > acetone > IPA; the value is taken from prior literature and the correlation is qualitative.
  • domain assumption Bulk literature work functions for graphene, Cu, Ag, and Al apply to the actual electrode-water interfaces.
    ΔEF values in Fig. 2d are computed from standard work functions without accounting for surface oxides, adsorbed water, or band bending at the liquid interface.

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Water evaporation-driven dynamic diode for direct electricity generation." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/XOUXTYDX

@misc{pith2026250703874,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Water evaporation-driven dynamic diode for direct electricity generation},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/XOUXTYDX}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2507.03874}
}
read the original abstract

Harnessing energy from ubiquitous water resources via molecular-scale mechanisms remains a critical frontier in sustainable energy research. Herein, we present a novel evaporation-driven power generator based on a dynamic diode architecture that continuously harvests direct current (DC) electricity by leveraging the flipping of the strong built-in electric field (up to 10E10 V/cm) generated by polar molecules such as water to drive directional carrier migration. In our system, water molecules undergo sequential polarization and depolarization at the graphene-water-silicon interface, triggering cycles of charge trapping and release. This nonionic mechanism is driven primarily by the Fermi level difference between graphene and silicon, augmented by the intrinsic dipole moment of water molecules. Structural optimization using graphene enhances evaporation kinetics and interfacial contact, yielding an open-circuit voltage of 0.35 V from a 2 cm * 1 cm device. When four units are connected in series, the system delivers a stable 1.2V output. Unlike ion-mediated energy harvesters, this corrosion-free architecture ensures long-term stability and material compatibility. Our work introduces a fundamentally new approach to water-based power generation, establishing interfacial polarization engineering as a scalable strategy for low-cost, sustainable electricity production from ambient water.

Discussion (0). Continue with ORCID to comment.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

26 extracted references · 23 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    O’Brien, E.M. (2006). Biological relativity to water -energy dynamics. J Biogeogr 33, 1868–1888. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- 2699.2006.01534.x

    arXiv 2006

  2. [2]

    Ming, T., De Richter, R., Liu, W., and Caillol, S. (2014). Fighting global warming by climate engineering: Is the Earth radiation management and the solar radiation management any option for fighting climate change. Preprint at Elsevier Ltd, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.12.032

    work page doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.12.032 2014

  3. [3]

    Zhang, W., Liu, R.T., and Huang, Y . (2024). Progress of Capillary Flow-Related Hydrovoltaic Technology: Mechanisms and Device Applications. Preprint at Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI), https://doi.org/10.3390/app14209589 https://doi.org/10.3390/app14209589

    work page doi:10.3390/app14209589 2024

  4. [4]

    Mao, K., Zhang, Y ., and Tan, S.C. (2025). Functionalizing solar - driven steam generation towards water and energy sustainability. Preprint at Springer Nature, https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221 -024- 00363-x https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-024-00363-x

    work page doi:10.1038/s44221 2025

  5. [5]

    Lopes, J.A.P., Hatziargyriou, N., Mutale, J., Djapic, P., and Jenkins, N. (2007). Integrating distributed generation into electric power systems: A review of drivers, challenges and opportunities. Electric Power Systems Research 77, 1189 –1203. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2006.08.016

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsr.2006.08.016 2007

  6. [6]

    Meharban, F., Tang, X., Yang, S., Wu, X., Lin, C., Tan, L., Hu, W., Zhou, D., Li, J., and Li, X. (2025). Harnessing direct seawater electrolysis for a sustainable offshore Hydrogen future: A critical review and perspective. Appl Energy 384, 125468. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125468

    arXiv 2025

  7. [7]

    Muratori, M., Kontou, E., and Eichman, J. (2019). Electricity rates for electric vehicle direct current fast charging in the United States. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113, 109235. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.06.042

    work page doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.06.042 2019

  8. [8]

    Dragičević, T., Lu, X., Vasquez, J.C., and Guerrero, J.M. (2016). DC Microgrids - Part II: A Review of Power Architectures, Applications, and Standardization Issues. Preprint at Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2015.2464277

    work page arXiv 2016

Show all 26 references
  1. [9]

    Blaabjerg, F., Yang, Y ., Yang, D., and Wang, X. (2017). Distributed Power-Generation Systems and Protection. Preprint at Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2017.2696878

    2017

  2. [10]

    Lu, Y ., Yan, Y ., Yu, X., Zhou, X., Feng, S., Xu, C., Zheng, H., Yang, Z., Li, L., Liu, K., et al. (2021). Polarized Water Driven Dynamic PN Junction-Based Direct -Current Generator. Research 2021. https://doi.org/10.34133/2021/7505638

    2021 doi

  3. [11]

    High Performance Direct-Current Generator Based on Dynamic PN Junctions

    Lu, Y ., Feng, S., Hao, Z., Shen, R., and Lin, S. High Performance Direct-Current Generator Based on Dynamic PN Junctions

  4. [12]

    Direct-Current Generator Based on Dynamic Water-Semiconductor Junction with Polarized Water as Moving Dielectric Medium

    Lu, Y ., Yan, Y ., Yu, X., Zhou, X., Feng, S., Xu, C., Zheng, H., Yang, Z., Li, L., Liu, K., et al. Direct-Current Generator Based on Dynamic Water-Semiconductor Junction with Polarized Water as Moving Dielectric Medium

  5. [13]

    Lu, Y ., Gao, Q., Yu, X., Zheng, H., Shen, R., Hao, Z., Yan, Y ., Zhang, P., Wen, Y ., Yang, G., et al. (2020). Interfacial Built-In Electric Field- Driven Direct Current Generator Based on Dynamic Silicon Homojunction. Research 2020. https://doi.org/10.34133/2020/5714754

    2020 doi

  6. [14]

    Bhattarai, T., Ebong, A., and Raja, M.Y .A. (2024). A Review of Light-Emitting Diodes and Ultraviolet Light -Emitting Diodes and Their Applications. Preprint at Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI), https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11060491 https://doi.org/10....

    2024 doi

  7. [15]

    Hu, T., Zhang, K., Deng, W., and Guo, W. (2024). Hydrovoltaic Effects from Mechanical -Electric Coupling at the Water -Solid Interface. Preprint at American Chemical Society, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.4c07900

    2024 doi

  8. [16]

    Chen, Z., Shi, J., Li, Y ., Ma, B., Yan, X., Liu, M., Jin, H., Li, D., Jing, D., and Guo, L. (2021). Recent progress of energy harvesting and conversion coupled with atmospheric water gathering. Energy Convers Manag 246, 114668. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconm...

    2021

  9. [17]

    Wang, Y ., Zhao, W., Han, M., Xu, J., and Tam, K.C. (2023). Biomimetic surface engineering for sustainable water harvesting systems. Nature Water 1, 587–601. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221- 023-00109-1

    2023 doi

  10. [18]

    Tao, P., Ni, G., Song, C., Shang, W., Wu, J., Zhu, J., Chen, G., and Deng, T. (2018). Solar -driven interfacial evaporation. Preprint at Nature Publishing Group, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0260- 7 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0260-7

    2018 doi

  11. [19]

    Zhang, Z., Li, X., Yin, J., Xu, Y ., Fei, W., Xue, M., Wang, Q., Zhou, J., and Guo, W. (2018). Emerging hydrovoltaic technology. Preprint at Nature Publishing Group, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565 -018- 0228-6 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-018-0228-6

    2018 doi

  12. [20]

    Xue, G., Xu, Y ., Ding, T., Li, J., Yin, J., Fei, W., Cao, Y ., Yu, J., Yuan, L., Gong, L., et al. (2017). Water -evaporation-induced electricity with nanostructured carbon materials. Nat Nanotechnol 12, 317–321. https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2016.300

    2017 doi

  13. [21]

    Lee, Y ., Lee, M., Lee, J., Jang, H.W., and Jang, J.S. (2025). Hydrovoltaic Power Generation Depend on Wettability at the Liquid–Solid Interface: Mechanisms, Materials, and Applications With Various Resource. Preprint at John Wiley and Sons Inc, https://doi.org/10.1002/EXP.70007

    2025 doi

  14. [22]

    Hou, L., Li, S., Qi, Y ., Liu, J., Cui, Z., Liu, X., Zhang, Y ., Wang, N., and Zhao, Y . (2025). Advancing Efficiency in Solar -Driven Interfacial Evaporation: Strategies and Applications. Preprint at American Chemical Society, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.4c16998

    2025 doi

  15. [23]

    Dai, K., Wang, Y ., Li, B., Li, P., Wang, X., and Gao, L. (2024). Advancements in Solid –Liquid Nanogenerators: A Comprehensive Review and Future Prospects. Molecules 29, 5716. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29235716

    2024 doi

  16. [24]

    Wang, L., Zhang, W., and Deng, Y . (2023). Advances and Challenges for Hydrovoltaic Intelligence. Preprint at American Chemical Society, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.3c02043

    2023 doi

  17. [25]

    Zhong, H., Xia, J., Wang, F., Chen, H., Wu, H., and Lin, S. (2017). Graphene‐Piezoelectric Material Heterostructure for Harvesting Energy from Water Flow. Adv Funct Mater 27. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201604226

    2017 doi

  18. [26]

    Yan, Y ., Zhou, X., Feng, S., Lu, Y ., Qian, J., Zhang, P., Yu, X., Zheng, Y ., Wang, F., Liu, K., et al. (2021). Direct Current Electricity Generation from Dynamic Polarized Water-Semiconductor Interface. Journal of Physical Chemistry C 125, 14180 –14187. https://doi.org/10.1...

    2021 doi

Pith tools

Reviewed August 6, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.