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The Complex Multi-Wavelength Morphology of the Peculiar Compact Galaxy Group IC 2431

T0 review · 3 major / 6 minor · reviewed 2026-08-06 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read A new Chandra study argues that the compact galaxy group IC 2431 is an early-stage collision, with a 20-million-solar-mass hot gas bridge between its two main galaxies and a 4-kpc radio ridge marking shock- or AGN-driven heating.

desk verdict A careful, honest multi-wavelength case study of IC 2431; the morphology is secure and new, but the headline hot-gas excess rests on weakly constrained absorbing columns and should be stress-tested before it is quoted as a factor-of-four. read the letter →

arxiv 2507.10439 v1 pith:DV5SPVHF submitted 2025-07-14 astro-ph.GA

Beverly J. Smith , Roberto Soria , Douglas Swartz , Mark L. Giroux , Curtis Struck , Ryan Urquhart This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.GA
keywords compactgalaxygroupIC2431X-rayhotgasmergersAGNfeedbackradiojetmulti-wavelengthmorphologystarburstgalaxies
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper tries to establish that the compact galaxy group IC 2431 is an early-stage collision caught in the act, and that its multi-wavelength peculiarities—a dust lane cutting across one disk, an infrared bridge between the two main galaxies, a $2 \times 10^7\,M_\odot$ knot of X-ray hot gas between them, and a 4-kpc radio ridge extending from one nucleus—are the signatures of gas being shocked and heated outside the galaxy disks. Using new Chandra spectra combined with archival ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio images, the authors report an unabsorbed hot-gas luminosity near $10^{42}$ erg s$^{-1}$, which is about four times (and for Galaxy B about nine times) the median $L_X(\mathrm{gas})/\mathrm{SFR}$ of a 49-pair merger comparison sample. The paper offers two interpretations: a head-on collision with ram-pressure stripping and shock heating, like the Taffy galaxies, or an AGN-powered jet distorted by interstellar gas during a tidal encounter. If the claim holds, IC 2431 becomes a nearby laboratory for how collisions and AGN feedback heat intragroup gas and push galaxies toward quenching.

What carries the argument

The analysis is carried by Chandra imaging spectroscopy on the ACIS-S3 chip: source and global spectra are fit in xspec with a two-component model, a thermal APEC plasma plus a power law, with the internal hydrogen column density, plasma temperature $kT$, and photon index as free parameters on top of fixed Galactic absorption. The unabsorbed thermal luminosity from these fits is converted to hot-gas mass and cooling time using standard cooling functions, and the resulting $L_X(\mathrm{gas})/\mathrm{SFR}$ ratio is compared with published merger, compact-group, and SINGS samples. The second load-bearing element is the multi-wavelength morphology: HST and DES images for tidal tails and the dust lane, Spitzer 8-$\mu$m maps for the star-forming bridge, and re-reduced VLA 4.86 and 1.49 GHz maps for the radio ridge and its spectral-index gradient.

What would settle it

Observe IC 2431 with a high-throughput X-ray spectrometer (or a much longer Chandra exposure) and measure the Fe K edge or Mg/Si line ratios to determine the intrinsic absorption without relying on the continuum shape. A column for Galaxy B near the CIGALE line value of about $4 \times 10^{21}$ cm$^{-2}$ would remove most of the claimed hot-gas excess; a column near the fitted $9 \times 10^{21}$ cm$^{-2}$ would confirm it.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

On the paper's own terms, the discovery is that IC 2431 contains a large reservoir of hot X-ray-emitting gas that is not tied to ongoing star formation. Spectral decomposition of the Chandra data into a thermal plasma component and a power-law component yields an unabsorbed hot-gas luminosity of about $10^{42}$ erg s$^{-1}$ in the 0.3–8 keV band for the system as a whole, against a total star formation rate of roughly 37–39 $M_\odot$ yr$^{-1}$, placing the $L_X(\mathrm{gas})/\mathrm{SFR}$ ratio about a factor of four above the median for equal-mass merging pairs, with Galaxy B alone about a factor of nine above. A concentration of about $2 \times 10^7\,M_\odot$ of hot gas sits between Galaxies A and B, and a 4-kpc radio continuum ridge emerges from the nucleus of Galaxy A, steepening in spectral index away from the nucleus. The authors conclude that IC 2431 is an early-stage compact group whose peculiar X-ray, infrared, and radio morphologies record shock- or AGN-driven heating of the interstellar and intragroup medium, and they explicitly leave open whether the radio ridge is a distorted AGN jet or a 'splash bridge' produced by a head-on collision.

Load-bearing premise

The hot-gas excess is a consequence of the large internal absorbing columns (about $6 \times 10^{21}$ and $9 \times 10^{21}$ cm$^{-2}$ for Galaxies A and B) fitted from Chandra spectra with only a few hundred net counts; if those columns are overestimated, the absorption-corrected X-ray luminosity, hot-gas mass, and the factor-of-four or factor-of-nine enhancement all shrink toward the normal merger relation.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • IC 2431 would show that early-stage compact groups can already host multi-million-solar-mass hot gas reservoirs outside the galaxy disks, not just evolved groups with E/S0 populations.
  • The factor-of-four (system) and factor-of-nine (Galaxy B) $L_X(\mathrm{gas})/\mathrm{SFR}$ enhancements would make IC 2431 one of the clearest star-forming systems in which gas heating outpaces the star-formation scaling, alongside Stephan's Quintet, NGC 4410, and HCG 62.
  • If the radio ridge is a jet, the system joins the short list of radio-AGN groups with hot-gas excess, supporting AGN feedback as a heating channel in compact groups.
  • If the radio ridge is a splash bridge, the system extends the Taffy head-on-collision phenomenon to a three-galaxy compact group and predicts shock signatures, such as mid-IR H$_2$ emission and a steep radio spectrum, in the bridge.
  • The derived hot-gas cooling times of roughly 10–50 Myr imply that the heating event is recent, consistent with a first disk impact or a newly triggered AGN episode.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Editorial inference: the quantitative excess is only as strong as the fitted absorption columns; if the true $N_H$ for Galaxy B is near the UV/IR value, the claimed factor-of-nine excess would probably fall to near the merger scatter, so the morphological case (bridge, ridge, dust lane) is more robust than the luminosity excess.
  • A testable extension: high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy (for example, of the Fe K edge or Mg/Si line ratios) or a far-infrared dust measurement could fix $N_H$ independently and decide whether IC 2431 truly departs from the $L_X(\mathrm{gas})$–SFR relation.
  • If the radio ridge is a splash bridge, high-resolution radio polarimetry should reveal ordered magnetic fields aligned with the ridge and a spectral index steepening beyond $\alpha = -1.1$; if it is a jet, one would expect Doppler-boosted one-sidedness and possibly an X-ray cavity or hot-spot at the ridge end.
  • The system has not yet been detected in CO; a molecular-gas map would test whether its high HI fraction and early-stage classification survive, and would set the gas mass available for shock heating.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 6 minor

Summary. IC 2431 is presented as a triple-disk compact group at 207 Mpc with a strong starburst (SFR ~37 M_sun/yr) and unusual morphologies: a dust lane across Galaxy A, a Spitzer 8-micron bridge to Galaxy B, a Chandra-detected hot-gas concentration between the galaxies, and a 4 kpc radio ridge from the nucleus of Galaxy A. Using new Chandra ACIS-S3 observations and archival UV-to-radio data, the authors fit APEC plus power-law models to low-count X-ray spectra, derive SFRs and extinctions from UV/IR photometry and CIGALE SED fitting, and compare L_X(gas), L_X(power law), sSFR, HI fraction, and Spitzer colors against samples of compact groups, mergers, and SINGS galaxies. They conclude that IC 2431 has an X-ray hot-gas luminosity enhanced by about a factor of four relative to its SFR, and discuss two scenarios: ram-pressure stripping in a head-on collision or an AGN jet interacting with interstellar gas.

Significance. The direct observational findings—dust lane, 8 micron bridge, X-ray knots, 4 kpc radio ridge, kT~0.9 keV thermal component—are well supported by the images and spectra and make IC 2431 an interesting addition to the small set of compact groups with intragroup hot gas. The paper is methodical and honest: it reports Cash statistics and 90% confidence intervals, re-reduces archival VLA data, uses published comparison samples with consistent band conversions, and explicitly acknowledges in Section 4.3 that the large thermal luminosities are a consequence of fitted high absorbing columns. However, the quantitative claim of a factor-of-four hot-gas excess—the element that makes the system a new reference case—rests on low-count spectral fits and is not yet demonstrated at the confidence implied by the abstract. If the requested robustness tests are provided and confirm the excess, the paper would be a valuable benchmark for collision- and AGN-driven gas heating.

major comments (3)
  1. [Section 4.4, Table 3, Section 4.3] The factor-of-four hot-gas excess is not robust because the absorption-corrected APEC luminosity is driven by weakly constrained internal N_H values. The global 12-arcsecond spectrum has C-stat/DOF = 282.91/274 and N_H = 0.76(+0.21/-0.26) x 10^22 cm^-2; Galaxy B has N_H = 0.90(+0.38/-0.50) x 10^22 cm^-2, 2.3 times the CIGALE line-extinction estimate of 0.47 +/- 0.16 x 10^22 cm^-2. Since the paper itself notes in Section 4.3 that the large L_X(thermal) values follow from these columns, a lower N_H would reduce L_X(gas), the hot-gas mass, and L_X(gas)/SFR. I request an additional fit with N_H fixed to the CIGALE line-extinction values (or to the 90% bounds of the fitted N_H), with the resulting APEC luminosities and L_X(gas)/SFR values reported, and the abstract and Section 6 claim conditioned on that result.
  2. [Section 3.5.1, Table 3] The APEC/power-law decomposition is under-constrained at the available signal. In the global fit Gamma = 1.06(+0.78/-0.91) and in Galaxy A Gamma = 1.05(+0.64/-0.85), values far below typical AGN/HMXB photon indices, while the 90% ranges on the deconvolved luminosities are large (global log L_APEC = 42.06(+0.14/-0.21)). Because the thermal and power-law components overlap below about 2.5 keV, a steeper power law could absorb part of the thermal luminosity with little change in C-stat. Please provide confidence contours for (N_H, kT, Gamma) or a fit with Gamma fixed to 1.8, and report how L_X(gas) changes; otherwise the value of L_X(gas) used in Figure 17 is model-dependent.
  3. [Section 4.4, Figure 17, Section 6] The strength of the abstract claim exceeds what the comparison shows for the system as a whole. The text states that the merger scatter is about a factor of 2.3 in L_X(gas)/SFR and that IC 2431 as a whole does not stand out in Figure 17; only Galaxy B is exceptional (L_X(gas)/SFR = 4-5 x 10^40, about 9 times the median), and its SFR differs by roughly a factor of two between CIGALE and FUV+8 micron. The factor of four for the whole system should therefore be presented as a range with a significance (e.g., derived from the 90% bounds on L_APEC and the SFR uncertainty), or the claim should be explicitly restricted to Galaxy B.
minor comments (6)
  1. [Section 4.4] Please reconcile the quoted ratio with Table 3; the global log L_APEC = 42.06 and SFR = 37-39 M_sun/yr give L_X(gas)/SFR approximately 3 x 10^40, not approximately 2 x 10^40, so the stated factor of four and the quoted ratio are mutually inconsistent.
  2. [Section 2.4] Because wavedetect was not reliable, the ten X-ray sources were chosen by eye from smoothed maps; please document the selection thresholds and aperture choices in the text or Table 4, since these regions feed the spectral decomposition in Table 4.
  3. [Section 5.3] In the list of possible explanations for source #10, L_X ~10^42 L_sun should be L_X ~10^42 erg s^-1; the printed units are incorrect.
  4. [Sections 2.3 and 2.4] There are typographical errors, including Multi-W avelength in the title header and maxium for maximum; these should be corrected in revision.
  5. [Section 4.3] The sentence quoting the highest N_H values inferred from the UV/IR ratios and obtained from fitting Chandra X-ray spectra is ambiguous about whether both numbers come from UV/IR or one from each; please clarify.
  6. [Figure 17 and Section 4.4] Please state explicitly that all L_X values are in the 0.3-8 keV band after PIMMS conversion and all SFRs are Kroupa IMF, so that the factor-of-four comparison is reproducible.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 2.0 of 10

No significant circularity; the hot-gas excess claim rests on a spectral-fitting measurement premise, and the only self-citation is a benchmark comparison, not a derivation input.

full rationale

This paper is an observational multi-wavelength study, not a derivation from first principles. The central quantitative claim, an excess of hot gas relative to star formation rate (LX(gas)/SFR ~ 2e40, about four times the merger median), is obtained by fitting Chandra spectra with an APEC plus power-law model, then comparing the absorption-corrected APEC luminosity with SFRs derived from UV/IR photometry. The paper explicitly acknowledges in Section 4.3 that the large thermal luminosities are a consequence of the fitted high internal absorbing columns, and those columns are weakly constrained by low-count spectra. This is a measurement degeneracy and an honest limitation, not a circular step: the fitted N_H is not recycled as an independent prediction, and the paper states the dependence directly. The comparison benchmark (median LX(gas)/SFR = 5.5e39 for 49 merging pairs) comes from Smith et al. (2018, 2019), which share authors with the present work. However, that benchmark is an external sample of measured systems, not an input to the spectral fits, and no uniqueness theorem or ansatz is imported from the prior work to force the conclusion. The morphological results (dust lane, mid-IR bridge, radio ridge) are independent imaging measurements. Thus the derivation chain is self-contained; the only mild self-citation is the use of the authors' own earlier merger catalog as a comparison sample, which does not make the central claim circular. Score 2 reflects this minor self-citation and the acknowledged measurement caveat, not any structural circularity.

Assumptions & free parameters 5 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central quantitative claims rest on fitted spectral parameters (N_H, kT, Gamma), assumed geometry and cooling functions, and standard SED-fitting outputs, all itemized above. No new physical entities (particles, forces, dimensions) are introduced; the dust bridge, radio ridge, and hot gas cloud are interpretations of observed emission. The comparison benchmarks are published measurements of other galaxies, including two samples from the present first author's own program, used as fixed reference relations rather than as inputs to any derivation.

free parameters (5)
  • Internal absorbing column N_H (X-ray spectral fits) = 0.76 (+0.21/-0.26) x 10^22 cm^-2 global 12''; 0.58 Galaxy A; 0.90 Galaxy B; 0.0 to 4.1 x 10^22 for individual sources…
    Fitted per region in the APEC+power-law decomposition. Section 4.3 states the large L_X(thermal) values are a direct consequence of these high columns; the unabsorbed luminosities, hot gas masses, and the L_X(gas)/SFR excess scale with them. The 90% ranges span factors of 2 to 5, and the Galaxy B value is 2.3x the independent CIGALE line-extinction estimate.
  • Photon index Gamma (power-law component) = 1.06 (+0.78/-0.91) global; 1.05 Galaxy A; 1.80 Galaxy B
    Fitted jointly with N_H and kT; splits the spectrum into thermal and non-thermal parts. Poorly constrained for the global and Galaxy A fits, with 90% ranges spanning roughly 0.1 to 2, which propagates into the thermal/non-thermal luminosity partition.
  • Plasma temperature kT (APEC component) = 0.92 (+0.13/-0.58) keV global; 0.85 Galaxy A; 0.58 Galaxy B; 0.23 to 51 keV for sources (Tables 3, 4)
    Fitted temperature used with cooling functions (McKee & Cowie 1977; McCray 1987) to convert luminosity into emissivity and gas mass. Some source fits converge at extreme values, e.g., kT ~ 51 keV in the preferred two-APEC model for source #10.
  • Assumed radii of the hot-gas regions = 0.7 to 1.25 arcsec (Table 5)
    Chosen from the source extraction apertures and used with spherical geometry to derive volumes, densities, and the quoted hot gas masses (2e7 M_sun between the galaxies, 5e7 M_sun total). The masses scale with the square root of the assumed volume through the fitted densities.
  • CIGALE-derived SFRs and stellar masses = SFR(B) = 18.3 +/- 9.4 M_sun/yr; SFR(A) = 8.5 +/- 2.1; log M* ~ 10.7 to 10.8 (Table 2)
    Outputs of grid-based SED fitting used as the denominator in the L_X(gas)/SFR excess claim and in the sSFR comparison. The choice of grid (Table 8), IMF, and dust-law parameters affects these values; the UV+8um calibration gives a consistent total, but the per-galaxy split carries the uncertainties above.
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption Adopted distance of 207 Mpc (H0 = 72 km/s/Mpc with Virgocentric flow correction)
    Stated in Section 1. Every luminosity, mass, and kpc-scale size in the paper scales with D^2 or D; a 15% distance error would change the hot gas luminosity by roughly 30% and the gas mass by a similar factor.
  • domain assumption The X-ray spectra are adequately described by one absorbed APEC thermal component plus one absorbed power law, with solar abundances, Wilms abundance table, and fixed redshift 0.0497
    Section 3.5.1. The separation into 'hot gas' and 'power law', and hence the claimed hot gas excess, is defined by this two-component model family. For source #10 the authors needed a two-APEC variant, and several single-component fits gave unphysical temperatures, showing the model family is stretched at the low-count end.
  • domain assumption Hot gas masses are derived from luminosity, temperature, cooling functions, and assumed spherical source volumes with an implicit filling factor
    Section 3.5.2 and Table 5: radii are 0.7 to 1.25 arcsec, volumes are spherical, densities are n_e sqrt(f), and masses follow from cooling-function energetics. The quoted 2e7 M_sun intergalactic cloud is an inferred quantity with these geometric assumptions, not a direct measurement.
  • domain assumption Standard UV+8um and CIGALE SFR calibrations are valid for this system
    Sections 3.2 and 3.4. The denominator of the L_X(gas)/SFR excess uses these calibrations. The IRAS-based SFR is 80 M_sun/yr, 2.2x the adopted 37 M_sun/yr, which would reduce the nominal excess accordingly, so the adopted SFR scale matters.
  • ad hoc to paper The ten X-ray sources selected by eye from smoothed maps are real, separable emitters
    Section 2.4: wavedetect failed on the diffuse emission, so sources were chosen from Gaussian-smoothed Chandra maps with apertures of 1.2 to 2.0 arcsec selected by appearance. The source-level APEC/power-law classification, the per-region hot gas masses, and the 'AGN in Galaxy B' claim rest on these hand-picked apertures.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of The Complex Multi-Wavelength Morphology of the Peculiar Compact Galaxy Group IC 2431." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/DV5SPVHF

@misc{pith2026250710439,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: The Complex Multi-Wavelength Morphology of the Peculiar Compact Galaxy Group IC 2431},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/DV5SPVHF}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2507.10439}
}
read the original abstract

We present new Chandra X-ray imaging spectroscopy of the compact galaxy group IC 2431, and compare with archival ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio images. IC 2431 is a starburst system containing three tidally-distorted disk galaxies. All three galaxies may have active nuclei. One galaxy is classified as an AGN based on its optical spectrum, a second is identified as a possible X-ray AGN based on the Chandra data, and the third galaxy may host a radio AGN. In optical images, a prominent dust lane crosses the southern galaxy, while Spitzer infrared images show a dusty bridge connecting the two brightest galaxies. Chandra maps reveal a massive (2 x 10^7 M(sun)) concentration of hot gas between these two galaxies, as well as several other knots of hot gas and non-thermal emission. The unabsorbed X-ray luminosity of the hot gas in IC 2431 is ~ 1 x 10^42 erg/s, which is enhanced by about a factor of four relative to the star formation rate, compared to other star-forming galaxies. In radio maps, a bright jet/ridge of radio continuum emission extends 4 kpc from one nucleus. We compare the properties of IC 2431 with those of other interacting galaxy systems, and discuss two different scenarios that may account for the peculiarities of IC 2431: ram pressure stripping of the interstellar medium during a head-on collision between two galaxies, or an AGN-powered radio jet that has been distorted by an interaction with interstellar gas during a tidal encounter between galaxies.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2507.10439 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Left: the archival HST F606W image of the IC 2431 group. Galaxies A, B, and C are marked. The field of view is 1′ . North is up and east to the left. Right: The DES Legacy Survey RGB image of IC 2431. Note the prominent red band crossing galaxy A in the south. The superimposed numbers identify six tidal features in the system. 2.2. Atomic Hydrogen Gas IC 2431 was detected in the 21 cm HI line as part of the ALFALFA … view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Images of IC 2431 at various wavelengths. From left to right, top to bottom: the images are: HST F606W, GALEX FUV, GALEX NUV, 2MASS J, 2MASS H, 2MASS K, Spitzer 3.6 µm, Spitzer 4.5 µm, Spitzer 5.8 µm, and Spitzer 8.0 µm. The field of view is 0. ′ 7, with north up and east to the left [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Zoomed-in views of Galaxy A and Galaxy B in various bands. The field of view is 22. ′′2 × 13. ′′3, with north up and east to the left. Top left: HST F606W image of IC 2431 with F606W contours of 4, 5, and 20 × 10−20 erg s−1 cm−2 ˚A −1 displayed. These contours were selected to outline the dust features and mark the optically-bright areas. The presumed galactic nuclei are marked in red. Top right: Spitzer 8 µm image … view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (17 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The Chandra count rates for the 2024 observations vs. the 2023 dataset, for the ten X-ray sources in IC 2431. These were extracted using the CIAO routine dmextract. Left: middle energy range (1.0 − 2.5 keV). Middle: high energy range (2.5 − 8.0 keV). Right: full range …
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Comparison of the radio continuum maps with data at other wavelengths. Left panels: the 4.86 GHz map. Right panels: the 1.49 GHz map. The contours in the first row are from the HST F606W map, selected to delineate the dust feature crossing Galaxy A. The contours in the…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: A multi-wavelength comparison of the region around the nucleus of Galaxy A. Top left: the 4.86 GHz map. Top middle: the 1.49 GHz map. Top right: the HST F606W image, with 1.49 GHz contours (cyan), and contours from the HST image itself (white contours). The contours on…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Left: the HST F606W map. Middle: the VLA spectral index map, defined by flux density Sν ∝ ν α . Right: the uncertainty in the radio spectral index. Contours from the HST map are overlaid on all of the images. The field of view is 22. ′′2 × 13. ′′3 with north up and eas…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: The southern portion of Galaxy B. Left: The VLA 1.49 GHz map, with HST contours superimposed. Right: The VLA 4.86 GHz map, with HST contours superimposed. The field of view is about 18′′ × 8 ′′, with north up and east to the left [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: The HST F606W image with various regions overlaid. The large rectangular regions in green are the regions in which the fluxes for Galaxies A, B, and C were extracted. The regions for Galaxy A and B are divided into smaller rectangular regions as shown by the white line…
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Left: Spectral energy distributions for the full IC 2431 system, compared to the SEDs of the individual galaxies (see [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_10.png]
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Top panels: The Chandra spectra for the diffuse X-ray emission in the IC 2431 group within a 12′′ radius (left), Galaxy A (middle) and Galaxy B (right). The best-fit 2-component model is overlaid as a solid magenta curve. The red dotted component dominating at lower e…
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Top panels: the Chandra spectra for the diffuse X-ray emission in X-ray source #1 (left), #2 (middle), and #3 (right). The best-fit model is overlaid. The model is plotted in blue when the best-fit model is a power law; the model is in red when the best model is an AP…
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Top panels: The Chandra spectra for the diffuse X-ray emission in X-ray source #4 (left), #5 (middle), and #6 (right). The best-fit model is overlaid. The model is plotted in blue when the best-fit model is a power law; the model is in red when the best model is an AP…
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Top panels: The Chandra spectra for the diffuse X-ray emission in X-ray source #7 (left), #8 (middle), and #9 (right). The best-fit model is overlaid. The model is plotted in blue when the best-fit model is a power law; the model is in red when the best model is an AP…
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Top panel: The Chandra spectra for the diffuse X-ray emission in X-ray source #10. The best-fit model, a model with two APEC components, is overlaid. The two APEC components are shown dotted in blue and green. The bottom panel provides ∆ C-stat. The data were fitted w…
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Log (F8.0/F4.5) vs. log (F5.8/F3.6) for the regions in IC 2431, and the comparison galaxies. The colors have been K-corrected as described in the text. As indicated by the legend on the right, Galaxy A is a filled blue diamond, Galaxy B a filled red square, and Galaxy…
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: Left: The X-ray luminosity from hot gas plotted against the SFR. Right: The ratio LX(gas)/SFR vs. sSFR. The purple filled circle marks the location of IC 2431 as a whole. The blue filled diamond is Galaxy A, and the red filled square is Galaxy B. The three APEC-domina…
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: Left: The fraction of non-dwarf galaxies that are elliptical or S0, plotted against the sSFR. Right: The LX(gas)/SFR ratio plotted against the fraction of non-dwarf galaxies that are elliptical or S0. The purple filled circle marks the location of IC 2431. The black o…
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Left: The sSFR plotted against fb,HI, the fraction of baryons that are HI, defined as the ratio of the HI mass to the sum of the mass of stars plus HI gas (ignoring molecular gas). Right: LX(gas)/SFR vs. log fb,HI. Symbols are defined in the legend on the right. The p…
Figure 20
Figure 20. Figure 20: Left: The power law component of the X-ray luminosity plotted against the SFR. Right: The ratio LX(power law)/SFR vs. sSFR. The symbols are explained in the legend on the right. The purple filled circle marks the location of IC 2431 as a whole. The filled blue diamond…

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