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Fine-structure Line Atlas for Multi-wavelength Extragalactic Study (FLAMES) III: [C II] as Tracer, Crisis of SFR, [O III]/[C II] at High-z, New Answers and New Questions

T0 review · 3 major / 6 minor · reviewed 2026-08-06 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read The [C ii] 'deficit' is a universal gas-line deficit driven by infrared luminosity, breaking the standard dust-corrected SFR calibration.

desk verdict A valuable empirical challenge to SFR calibrations in dusty galaxies, with the H-alpha deficit claim resting on extinction corrections that deserve a sensitivity analysis. read the letter →

arxiv 2507.12896 v1 pith:FJEEDUAE submitted 2025-07-17 astro-ph.GA

Bo Peng , Gordon Stacey , Amit Vishwas , Catie Ball , Cody Lamarche , Christopher Rooney , Thomas Nikola , Carl Ferkinhoff This is my paper
classification astro-ph.GA
keywords [Cii]deficitfar-infraredfine-structurelinesstarformationratecalibrationinterstellarmediumgas-phasemetallicitydusttemperatureionized-neutralgascoherencehigh-redshiftgalaxies
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper argues that the well-known [C ii] 'deficit'—the decline of [C ii] emission relative to infrared luminosity in the most luminous galaxies—is not peculiar to [C ii] but part of a universal phenomenon: in IR-luminous systems, every neutral and ionized gas line, including extinction-corrected H$\alpha$, drops relative to $L_{\rm IR}$. Working from the FLAMES catalog of far-infrared fine-structure line detections and companion photoionization models, it attributes the deficit to the IR side of the ratio, specifically hotter dust, and frames the result as a physical decoupling, or dichotomy, between gas emission and dust emission. The consequence is a crisis for star-formation-rate measurements: the obscuration-corrected H$\alpha$ calibration was never calibrated on the most dusty galaxies, and if the IR luminosity is what is anomalous, SFRs of the most luminous dusty systems could be overestimated by up to a factor of 100. The paper also establishes that [C ii] is physically a metallicity-dependent SFR tracer, that about 80% of its emission arises from neutral gas with little variation across galaxy types, and that [C ii] traces energy input rather than gas mass.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing object is the abundance-corrected [C ii] neutral fraction of Eq. 1, which uses the observed [C ii]/[N ii] ratio together with the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (approximated as $\mathrm{C/N} = (\mathrm{C/O})_\odot \times (\mathrm{O/N})$ with solar C/O) and PyNeb emissivities to convert line ratios into $f_{\rm [C\,II],neutral}$. This single correction collapses the previously reported spread in neutral fraction (from roughly 50% in metal-rich systems to above 95% in dwarfs) to a narrow range around 80% and makes [N ii]/[C ii] a tracer of N/O. The companion machinery is the empirical scaling of each FIR line luminosity against extinction-corrected H$\alpha$ and O/H, whose slopes reproduce the theoretical emissivity ratios, and the 'deficit-to-deficit' correlations between $L_{\rm [C\,II]}/L_{\rm IR}$ and every other line-to-IR ratio, which identify $L_{\rm IR}$ (as tracked by the dust-color temperature $S_{60}/S_{100}$) as the common denominator driving all of the deficits.

What would settle it

Measure the ionized-gas luminosity of IR-luminous galaxies with an extinction correction that does not depend on the Balmer decrement, for example Pa$\alpha$ or Br$\alpha$ recombination lines from JWST/NIRSpec or free-free radio continuum, and check whether the corrected line-to-$L_{\rm IR}$ ratio still declines by 1–2 dex for $L_{\rm IR} \gtrsim 10^{11}\,L_\odot$. A parallel discriminator is to compare core-collapse supernova rates, a line- and dust-independent SFR, against $L_{\rm IR}$-based and line-based SFRs in the same systems: if SFR scales with $L_{\rm IR}$ the IR 'excess' scenario fails, and if it scales with the lines the ionized-gas 'deficit' scenario fails.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

After correcting the classic [C ii]/[N ii] method for estimating the [C ii] neutral fraction for the order-of-magnitude variation in nitrogen-to-oxygen abundance across galaxy populations, the inferred neutral fraction converges to roughly 80% for all galaxy types, making [N ii]/[C ii] practically a tracer of N/O rather than of neutral-gas fraction. The same abundance logic turns FIR fine-structure line-to-H$\alpha$ ratios into linear metallicity indicators whose fitted slopes match theoretical emissivity ratios. The central discovery is that the [C ii] 'deficit' is one face of a universal deficit: all neutral and ionized gas lines, including extinction-corrected H$\alpha$, follow tightly correlated 'deficit-to-deficit' trends, and the common denominator is $L_{\rm IR}$ as traced by dust temperature. This rules out metallicity, excitation state, neutral fraction, density, and extinction as primary causes, and it breaks the obscuration-corrected SFR calibration for IR-luminous galaxies. The paper quantifies the breakdown with a new metallicity-dependent [C ii] SFR calibration, $\mathrm{SFR}_{\rm [C\,II]} = 2.59\,(L_{\rm [C\,II]}/10^8\,L_\odot)\,(\mathrm{O/H}/10^{-3.31})^{-1}\,M_\odot\,\mathrm{yr}^{-1}$, and shows that under the IR 'excess' scenario the standard $L_{\rm IR}$-based SFRs would need to be revised downward by factors up to 100.

Load-bearing premise

The claim that the deficit is universal and that the SFR calibration is broken rests on literature Balmer-decrement extinction corrections for H$\alpha$, and if those corrections are systematically biased for the dust-richest, most IR-luminous galaxies that drive the deficit, the universal gas-line deficit and the gas-dust dichotomy would be partly an artifact of the correction method.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • SFRs of the most luminous dusty galaxies—U/LIRGs, high-z DSFGs, and QSO hosts—should be treated as unvalidated under the standard obscuration-corrected calibration, and under the IR 'excess' scenario they could be too high by up to a factor of 100.
  • There is no single universal [C ii]–SFR relation; the conversion must be scaled by metallicity, which naturally explains the offsets among previously published [C ii] calibrations and the faintness of [C ii] in early-universe galaxies.
  • [C ii] line-intensity mapping experiments aimed at cosmic star-formation history must fold in the metallicity suppression of [C ii] in low-mass reionization-epoch galaxies, which diminishes their expected contribution to the intensity signal.
  • Classical PDR models should not be applied to galaxy-integrated FIR data without independent cross-checks, because PDR-based mechanisms cannot produce the simultaneous suppression of ionized-gas lines like [N ii] and H$\alpha$ seen in the universal deficit.
  • High-z LBG/LAEs do not show intrinsically elevated [O iii]88/[C ii] relative to local dwarfs; the apparent offset is an artifact of comparing at fixed SFR without accounting for the redshift evolution of the mass–metallicity and star-forming main-sequence relations.
  • Faint or absent [C ii] in very high-redshift galaxies need not require exotic carbon depletion or IMF variations; the metallicity-dependent calibration already predicts weak [C ii] in the metal-poor systems that dominate the early universe.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the universal deficit is real, a corollary is that the 'extreme starburst' interpretation of high-z DSFGs may be softened toward more modest SFRs, with knock-on consequences for inferred gas depletion timescales, feedback energetics, and the cosmic SFR density at its peak epoch.
  • The gas–dust dichotomy suggests a spatially testable prediction: within individual dusty galaxies, the line-to-continuum deficit should be concentrated where dust is hottest, so resolved ALMA/JWST maps should show $L_{\rm line}/L_{\rm IR}$ declining specifically in regions of high $S_{60}/S_{100}$.
  • Core-collapse supernova rates, measurable with upcoming time-domain surveys, provide a line- and dust-independent SFR benchmark: if they track line-based SFRs in nearby U/LIRGs, the IR 'excess' branch wins, whereas if they track $L_{\rm IR}$-based SFRs, the ionized-gas 'deficit' branch wins and [C ii] calibrations need a deficit correction.
  • The near-universal 80% neutral fraction, if confirmed by resolved [C ii]/[N ii] mapping, implies that integrated [C ii] emission reports the shared radiation budget of the ISM rather than PDR conditions, so interpreting high-z [C ii] detections as direct star-formation beacons should be done with explicit abundance and excitation caveats.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 6 minor

Summary. This paper, the third in the FLAMES series, uses the comprehensive FIR fine-structure line catalogs from Papers I and II to revisit the origin and diagnostic use of [C ii], the nature of the 'deficit' phenomenon, and the reliability of SFR calibrations in dusty galaxies. The authors argue that (i) after correcting for N/O abundance variations, the neutral fraction of [C ii] is approximately 80% with little systematic variation across galaxy types; (ii) FIR FSL-to-Hα ratios are tight linear functions of metallicity, making [C ii] and [O iii]88 potential abundance indicators; (iii) the [C ii] 'deficit' is part of a universal deficit affecting all neutral and ionized gas lines, including extinction-corrected Hα, and is driven by dust temperature and an anomalous LIR; (iv) this universal deficit implies a breakdown of obscuration-corrected SFR calibrations, with SFRs potentially overestimated by up to a factor of 100 in the most IR-luminous systems; (v) [C ii] is a metallicity-dependent SFR tracer rather than a gas-mass tracer; and (vi) several apparent high-z anomalies, such as elevated [O iii]/[C ii] in LBG/LAEs, can be explained by redshift evolution of scaling relations, while enhanced oxygen lines in dusty systems may reflect AGN activity. The paper also critically re-examines the applicability of PDR models to galaxy-integrated data and proposes five heuristic scenarios for the gas-dust dichotomy.

Significance. If the empirical correlations hold, this paper provides a valuable synthesis: it offers a clean abundance-corrected prescription for the [C ii] neutral fraction, a simple metallicity scaling for FSL/Hα, a convincing demonstration that the Kennicutt et al. (2009) IR-corrected Hα calibration was calibrated on a sample that preferentially excludes IR-luminous outliers (Fig. 13), and a coherent explanation of several high-z line-ratio offsets in terms of known evolution of scaling relations. The strongest claim—that obscuration-corrected SFR calibrations break down by factors up to 100 for IR-luminous dusty galaxies—is consequential and falsifiable, but as discussed below it is conditional on the reliability of literature Balmer-decrement extinction corrections. The paper's strengths include its explicit handling of abundance effects, its use of a very broad multi-wavelength dataset, and its candid admission that several proposed scenarios are heuristic; these features make the paper a useful reference even where its conclusions are debated.

major comments (3)
  1. [§3.2, §4.5] The claim that extinction-corrected Hα exhibits an intrinsic 'deficit' and that the parallel Hα and [C ii] deficits 'rule out ... extinction effects' is load-bearing for the universal-deficit and SFR-crisis conclusions, but the analysis relies on literature Balmer-decrement corrections. In the U/LIRGs that drive the deficit, these corrections are the least reliable: for clumpy or mixed gas-dust geometries, the Balmer decrement is luminosity-weighted toward lightly obscured sightlines, so E(B-V) and hence L_Hα,ext.corr are systematically underestimated. This could manufacture an Hα deficit and contribute to the apparent gas-dust dichotomy even if the gas is intrinsically normal. The [C ii] deficit does not remove this concern unless the extinction corrections are shown to be unbiased. I request a sensitivity test using an independent extinction tracer (e.g., Paα or Brγ, or free-free radio continuum) for a subset of the IR-luminous galaxies, or a clearly worded softening of the claim that the Hα deficit is independent of extinction-correction systematics.
  2. [§2.2, Fig. 3] The linear fits supporting the central claim that FIR FSL/Hα traces metallicity exclude galaxies with log(O/H) > -3.75, with the stated reason being an ionization-turnover effect in [O iii]88. This post hoc subsample cut, applied to all four lines, means the metallicity dependence is not demonstrated across the full abundance range probed by the data. Since this same scaling is later used as the basis for the metallicity-dependent [C ii]-SFR calibration in §4.7.1, the restricted range and the treatment of the metal-rich branch need to be stated explicitly in the fitting description and in the abstract; ideally the authors should fit a model that includes the turnover rather than excluding the data.
  3. [§4.7.1, Eq. 3] Equation (3) is presented as a new metallicity-dependent [C ii]-SFR calibration, but it is a re-expression of the same L[C ii]/Hα–O/H fit shown in Fig. 3(a), converted to SFR through the Murphy et al. (2011) Hα-to-SFR relation. It is therefore a fitted calibration, not an independent prediction. Moreover, the 'theoretical expectation' dotted line in Fig. 15 uses f[C II],neutral = 0.8, which was estimated from the same sample in Sec. 2.1 and then recycled into the emissivity calculation, so the agreement with the fit is partly built in. This does not invalidate Eq. 3 as an empirical calibrator, but the paper should not present the agreement as independent confirmation; I recommend reporting the calibration directly in L[C II]–SFR space with propagated uncertainties and with the covariance between the fitted normalization and the assumed f[C II],neutral.
minor comments (6)
  1. [§2.2] The notation 'Hαext.corr.' is defined in the text, but the figures abbreviate it inconsistently (e.g., 'H ext. corr' in Figs. 2, 3, 5); please define the abbreviation once in the caption and use it consistently.
  2. [§3.1, Fig. 4] The [O i]145 and [N ii]122 panels contain many upper limits, but the text states that these lines 'show good agreement' with the [C ii] deficit trend; please state how upper limits were treated in the scatter estimates and whether the quoted scatters include them.
  3. [§4.8.2] The phrase 'mischaracterized as a deficit' and the claim that the De Looze et al. (2014) fits have a 'power index 0.16' should be checked; the exponent seems to refer to a secondary fit and could be misread as a slope of the [O iii]/[C ii]–SFR relation.
  4. [Fig. 12] The five-panel schematic in Fig. 12 is very dense and difficult to read at journal page size; a table summarizing the scenarios, their physical mechanisms, and their observational consequences would be more effective for the reader.
  5. [Throughout] There are numerous typographical errors and garbled sentences, e.g., 'discuseed' (§4.8), 'ragions' for 'regions' (§4.2), 'caueses' (§4.8.3), 'manly' for 'mainly' (§4.3), and 'characterzied' (Summary); a careful proofreading pass is needed.
  6. [§4.4.2] The energetic feasibility argument against the cirrus scenario would be strengthened by a quantitative comparison: the authors state that evolved stars would need to exceed L_IR ~ 10^14 L_sun, but they do not show the implied stellar-mass constraint or cite a specific model that rules it out.

Circularity Check

1 steps flagged · score 3.0 of 10

Mild circularity: the f[C II],neutral ≈ 0.8 value is reused to compute the 'expected' [C ii]/Hα ratio, then cited as an independent confirmation; the headline universal-deficit and SFR-crisis claims are empirical and not circular.

  1. fitted input called prediction [Sec. 2.2 (Fig. 3) and Sec. 4.1]
    "Similarly, the fitted [C ii]/Hα/(O/H) ratio of 10^{3.21} is consistent with the expected value, derived using ε[C II],e−/αB,Hα/(1−f[C II],neutral) ∗ (C/O)⊙ = 10^{3.35}, where εe− denotes the emissivity in ionized gas for [C ii] assuming the aforementioned conditions. We adopt f[C II],neutral = 0.8 as estimated in the previous section. ... This interpretation is further supported by the remarkably consistent [C ii] neutral fraction (f[C II],neutral), as derived independently from both [C ii]/[N ii] and [C ii]/Hα ratios (see Sec. 2.1 and 2.2)."

    The expected [C ii]/Hα ratio is not an independent prediction: it is computed by inserting f[C II],neutral = 0.8 into the emissivity formula, and 0.8 is the median obtained from Eq. 1 using [C ii]/[N ii] and N/O in the preceding section. The agreement with the fitted [C ii]/Hα–O/H relation is therefore a self-consistency check, and presenting it as derived independently from both [C ii]/[N ii] and [C ii]/Hα reuses the [C ii]/[N ii] output as input. The confirmation partly reduces to its own construction. This affects the supporting ionized–neutral coherence inference, not the main empirical deficit claim, which is based on separate line-to-LIR comparisons.

full rationale

The only concrete circular step is the f[C II],neutral ≈ 0.8 self-consistency check: Eq. 1 yields 0.8 from [C ii]/[N ii] and N/O, Sec. 2.2 uses that same 0.8 to compute an expected [C ii]/Hα ratio, and Sec. 4.1 calls the agreement an independent derivation. That is a fitted input recycled as confirmation. The central claims are not circular: the universal line deficit is an empirical pattern in measured line-to-LIR ratios; the Hα deficit uses literature Balmer-decrement-corrected luminosities; and the inference that a corrected-tracer deficit rules out extinction effects depends on those corrections being unbiased. That dependency is a systematic-error risk for the Hα part of the argument, not a definitional reduction, so by the stated rules it is not counted as circularity here. Equation (3) is explicitly derived from the Fig. 3 fits and the Murphy et al. (2011) Hα-to-SFR conversion, making it a calibration of an empirical relation rather than a prediction of an independent quantity. The series cites Paper I and Paper II for data and models, but those are supporting empirical and model inputs, not uniqueness or ansatz-carrying citations that force the conclusion. Overall, the deficit and gas–dust dichotomy are empirical syntheses with independent content; only the f ≈ 0.8 independent-confirmation claim is partially circular, so a score of 3 is appropriate.

Assumptions & free parameters 7 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on free parameters fitted to the same data (line-to-H-alpha scalings), on adopted abundance assumptions (constant solar C/O, reliable N/O), on assumed electron temperature and density for emissivities, and on post hoc exclusion of metal-rich galaxies from linear fits. No new physical entities such as new particles or fields are introduced; the IR excess and ionized gas deficit are explanatory scenarios rather than entities.

free parameters (7)
  • [O III]88/H-alpha scaling normalization = 10^3.59
    Linear fit to low-metallicity galaxies with log(O/H) <= -3.75, used to claim metallicity scaling of FIR FSLs (Sec 2.2).
  • [C II]/H-alpha scaling normalization = 10^3.21
    Linear fit to L[C II]/H-alpha versus O/H, used for the SFR calibration and the ~80% neutral fraction consistency check (Sec 2.2).
  • [O I]63/H-alpha scaling normalization = 10^2.91
    Fit to data in Fig 3c, showing oxygen neutral line abundance scaling (Sec 2.2).
  • [O I]145/H-alpha scaling normalization = 10^1.82
    Fit to low-S/N data in Fig 3d; weaker correlation, larger scatter (Sec 2.2).
  • [C II] neutral fraction = 0.8
    Adopted median from N/O-corrected f values in Sec 2.1, then used in emissivity calculations and the metallicity-dependent SFR relation (Sec 2.2, Eq 3).
  • Electron temperature and density for PyNeb emissivities = Te=10^4 K, ne=50 cm^-3
    Fixed inputs for PyNeb emissivity ratios; they set the expected [C II]/H-alpha and neutral fraction values (Sec 2.1, 2.2).
  • SFR[C II] normalization = 2.59
    Equation 3 rescales the L[C II]/H-alpha fit through the Murphy et al. (2011) H-alpha-to-SFR conversion; not an independent prediction.
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption The carbon-to-oxygen abundance ratio is constant and equal to the solar value (C/O)=10^-0.26 across all galaxy types.
    Used in Eq. 1 to derive f[CII],neutral from [N II]/[C II]; if C/O varies with metallicity or galaxy population, the universal 80% result changes.
  • domain assumption N/O abundances measured from optical lines are reliable for the full galaxy sample.
    N/O is the independent variable in Fig 1 and the abundance correction; the paper acknowledges ~0.1 dex systematics but does not propagate them through the central claims.
  • domain assumption Extinction-corrected H-alpha luminosities from the literature are accurate for IR-luminous and dusty galaxies.
    Used to define the H-alpha deficit and the abundance scalings; if the Balmer-decrement corrections are biased in the dusty systems, the universal-deficit claim is weakened (Sec 3.2).
  • domain assumption PyNeb collisional excitation at Te=10^4 K and ne=50 cm^-3 describes galaxy-integrated FIR line emission.
    Used to compute expected emissivity ratios and the f=0.8 consistency check; density effects are argued to be minimal but not exhaustively mapped.
  • ad hoc to paper The ionization turnover justifies excluding galaxies with log(O/H) > -3.75 from the linear fits.
    This exclusion prevents the [O III] filling-factor turnover from steepening the linear scaling, but it is a post hoc sample selection that shapes the quoted normalization (Sec 2.2).

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Fine-structure Line Atlas for Multi-wavelength Extragalactic Study (FLAMES) III: [C II] as Tracer, Crisis of SFR, [O III]/[C II] at High-z, New Answers and New Questions." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/FJEEDUAE

@misc{pith2026250712896,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Fine-structure Line Atlas for Multi-wavelength Extragalactic Study (FLAMES) III: [C II] as Tracer, Crisis of SFR, [O III]/[C II] at High-z, New Answers and New Questions},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/FJEEDUAE}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2507.12896}
}
abstract

In the final paper of this series, we discuss new perspectives and challenges in the study of interstellar medium (ISM), leveraging comprehensive catalogs and physical insights presented in our previous papers. We focus on key questions of far-infrared (FIR) fine-structure lines (FSLs): their origins, diagnostic value, and implications of correlations. Our analysis reveals a strong dependence on elemental abundance, so that FSL/H$\alpha$ traces metallicity, [N II]/[C II] traces N/O, and $\sim$80% of [C II] emission arises from neutral gas without systematic variations. We conclude a coherence exists between the emissions from ionized and neutral gases regarding energy sources and distribution. We argue that [C II] is physically a metallicity-dependent star formation rate (SFR) tracer, while its correlations with atomic or molecular gas masses are secondary. Crucially, the [C II] ``deficit'' is only part of a universal ``deficit'' problem that shows in all neutral and ionized gas lines including extinction-corrected H$\alpha$, caused by infrared (IR) luminosities and characterized by a dichotomy in gas and dust behaviors. This universal ``deficit'' marks a breakdown of the obscuration-corrected star-formation rate (SFR) calibration and imperils SFR estimates. We argue that it is caused by either IR ``excess'' or ionized gas ``deficit'', and present possible scenarios. A renewed picture of ISM structure is needed to reconcile with ionized--neutral gas coherence, metallicity dependence, and gas--dust dichotomy. We also discuss differences of FIR FSL at high redshifts: the offset in ``deficit'' trends, the similar [O III]/[C II] in metal-poor galaxies, and elevated [O III]/[C II] in dusty galaxies.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2507.12896 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. N/O vs. a, [C ii]-to-[N ii]122; or b, [C ii]-to-[N ii]205. The increasingly denser and longer seg￾mented diagonal lines represent N/O corrected [C ii] neutral fraction f[C II],neutral (Eq. 1) from 0% to 95%. The thick short-dashed gray line in (b) represent the [C ii]ion/[N ii]205 baseline used in Oberst et al. (2006). tios. On the other hand, nitrogen abundance shows a large variation across galaxies relative to α … view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Demographics of the FIR-to-Hαext.corr. discussion in this work. The median value fit on low-z galaxies is printed at the lower right corner in each panel [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Comparison between absolute metallicity O/H and FIR FSL ratio to extinction-corrected Hα for [O iii]88 (first column), [C ii] (second column), [O i]63 (third column), [O i]145 (fourth column). The first row shows log (O/H) vs. Lline/Hα, and the second row shows the residual as Lline/Hα/(O/H). The gray dashed lines in the first row, and the dashed lines and shades in the second row, represent the linear fitting resul… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (16 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Comparison of [C ii] “deficit” (x-axis) with the “deficit” of other FIR FSLs (y-axis). Gray dashed lines indicate constant [C ii]-to-line luminosity ratios. Note that the [O i]145 and [N ii]122 panels include a significant number of upper limits. sec. 3.6 of Paper I an…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: a, extinction-corrected LHα/LIR vs. LIR, illustrating the Hα “deficit.” b, Correlation between the “deficits” trends of Hα and [C ii]. c, LHα/LIR as a function of absolute gas-phase metallicity O/H, showing a breakdown of the linear trend for dusty galaxies Lline/Mdust…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: FIR line “deficits” as a function of the dust color temperature S60/S100. The dashed lines are the OT-MBB SED model predictions corresponding to constant values of Lline/Mdust, as printed in the upper left panel. decreasing ratio of line emission to LIR. Given that the…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: confirms a weak but positive correlation be￾tween S60/S100 and ne traced by [N ii]122/205, consis￾tent with previous findings (Herrera-Camus et al. 2016). A tighter correlation is seen between S60/S100 and [O i]/[C ii], though this may partly reflect data qual￾10 0 10 …
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Dust color temperature S60/S100 vs. extinc￾tion-corrected LHα/LIR. Points with measured metallicity are color-coded by log (O/H), otherwise showing only the errorbars. Model lines correspond to constant LHα/Mdust ratios derived from OT-MBB SEDs. As discussed in sec. 3.…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Metallicity log (O/H) vs. a, dust color S60/S100; and b, IR excess IRX. Inset panels show data points color– coded by LIR. but also spatially coherent. Among all physical param￾eters examined in Paper I, metallicity emerges as the dominant factor that influences the re…
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Metallicity log (O/H) v.s. dust properties, col￾or-coded by IR luminosity LIR, according to the color bar displayed on the top right. a, log (O/H) v.s. the dust ob￾scuration fraction fIR = LIR/(LIR+LFUV), the gray dashed line illustrates a linear fit of the low fIR pa…
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Energy flow diagram for the IR “excess” and ionized gas “deficit” scenarios theoretical explanations, we first summarize the key observational features of galaxies that fall along the “deficit” branch: 1. The [C ii] “deficit” is defined as a significant drop in the [C…
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Illustration of the five models considered in the text that involved either IR “excess” (left three scenarios) or ionized gas “deficit” (right two scenarios) to explain the line “deficit” and dust–gas dichotomy seen in dusty galaxies. AGN feedback or the co-evolution …
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Reproduction of fig. 6–8 from Kennicutt et al. (2009), using the same data sources but without imposing their sample selection criteria. Galaxies that would be ex￾cluded by the Hβ S/N cut of 15 (as described in their sec. 2.1) are marked with cross symbols. Upon re-ex…
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Comparison of different SFR indicators. Ex￾tinction-corrected Hα based SFRHα,ext.corr. compared to a, LIR and LFUV based totol SFRIR+UV; and b, L[C II] based SFR[C II]. c, SFRIR+UV compared to SFR[C II]. The gray di￾agonal line in each panel denotes a unity relation. …
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: log (O/H) vs. L[C II]/LHα,ext.corr., showing only detections. The right axis converts L[C II]/LHα to L[C II]/SFR using the Hα-to-SFR conversion from Murphy et al. (2011). Literature [C ii]-to-SFR calibrations and scat￾ters from Herrera-Camus et al. (2015), Schaerer et…
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: (a) shows a sublinear correlation between L[C II] and MH I, with a power-law index of ∼0.6 and very substantial scatter. The L[C II]/MH I ratio strongly depends on metallicity, as seen in the inset. Even af￾ter correcting for metallicity (b), a residual trend re￾mains…
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: [C ii] “deficit” at Low- and high-z in four red￾shift bins: a, z < 1 (low-z ); b, 1 ≤ z < 3; c, 3 ≤ z < 5; d, z > 5. The none-“deficit” branch, low-z [C ii] “deficit” and total high-z “deficit” branches are shown as blue, red, and gray translucent shades, respectively…
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: L[O III]88/L[C II] vs. total star formation rate SFRIR+UV. a, axis limits match fig. 5 in Harikane et al. (2020). The blue and red shaded regions repre￾sent the [O iii]/[C ii]–SFR relations derived by dividing the [O iii]–SFR and [C ii]–SFR fits from De Looze et al. (…
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: [O i]/[C ii] vs. [O iii]88/[C ii], the diagonal dashed lines represent different [O iii]88/[O i]63 values. The colored track shows the expected trajectory as AGN frac￾tion increases, based on decomposition models from Paper I. Horizontal and vertical shaded bands indi…

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