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arxiv: 2509.16138 · v3 · submitted 2025-09-19 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Two-phase formation of galaxies: the coevolution between galaxies and dark matter halos

Qinglin Ma , Yangyao Chen , Houjun Mo This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-18 15:13 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords galaxy formationdark matter halostwo-phase assemblystar formation modescosmological simulationsMilky Way analogsgalaxy morphologyhalo accretion history
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The pith

Milky Way-size galaxies form in two phases linked to when their dark matter halos switch from fast to slow accretion.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper uses cosmological zoom-in simulations to track how galaxies and their host halos grow together. It shows galaxies start with hot, bulge-dominated structures and bursty star formation, then shift to cold, disk-dominated structures with steady star formation. These shifts line up with the moment the surrounding dark matter halo stops its rapid growth phase. The early hot phase comes from stars forming in scattered cold gas streams far out during fast halo buildup, while the later phase follows when fast growth ends and feedback clears gas, allowing stable disks to settle. This ties galaxy structure changes directly to the halo's assembly history.

Core claim

The formation of these galaxies follows a two-phase pattern, with an early phase featured by hot dynamics, bulge-dominated structure and bursty star formation, and a later phase featured by cold dynamics, disk-dominated structure and steady star formation. The transition times of these galaxy properties are correlated with the time when the host halo transits from fast to slow accretion, indicating the two-phase assembly of halos as a potential mechanism that drives the two-phase formation of galaxies. The physical origin of dynamical hotness can be summarized into two modes of star formation: a scattered mode in which stars form at large radii within cold gas streams associated with fast a

What carries the argument

The two-phase assembly of dark matter halos, which sets the timing for two star-formation modes: scattered formation in distant cold gas streams during rapid halo growth and concentrated formation via violent gas fragmentation near the center as growth slows.

If this is right

  • The two star-formation modes produce distinct structural signatures in high-redshift galaxies.
  • Cold gaseous and stellar disks emerge only after fast halo accretion stalls and feedback reduces available gas.
  • Halo assembly history directly controls the morphological transition from bulge to disk dominance.
  • These patterns offer testable predictions for the internal structures of distant galaxies.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same halo-driven timing could organize morphological changes across a wider range of galaxy masses if the fast-to-slow transition is common.
  • Comparing the predicted structural imprints against early JWST images of high-redshift galaxies would provide an independent check.
  • Varying feedback efficiency in follow-up simulations could reveal how sensitive the correlation is to the details of gas removal.

Load-bearing premise

The subgrid prescriptions for star formation, feedback, and gas cooling in the simulations accurately capture the real processes that control the timing and outcomes of each phase without major numerical artifacts.

What would settle it

Direct measurements showing that the observed transition times for galaxy dynamical state or star-formation rate do not align with the inferred fast-to-slow accretion transition times of their host halos.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2509.16138 by Houjun Mo, Qinglin Ma, Yangyao Chen.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Visualization and profiles of the galaxy [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Properties of the galaxy m12f and its host halo as functions of the cosmic time (𝑡) or redshift (𝑧). Each panel shows a different property. (a), stellar mass in total (gray) and separately for the three kinematic components (colored), and 𝑀vir of the host halo (black). Three vertical lines indicate the epochs at which the bulge mass reaches 20%, 50% and 80%, respectively, of its final value at 𝑧 = 0, with … view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Correlation between halo transition time ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The quadrant diagram showing the evolution of galaxies in the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Evolution of properties related to the formation of stellar bulges. (a) [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Evolution of galaxy sizes. (a), sizes of the galaxy m12f by different definitions as functions of redshift, pink solid (dashed) for 𝑅50,bulge (𝑅50,young bulge), the half-mass radius of all (young) bulge stars, and dark blue for the half-mass radius of all stars formed at 𝑧 ⩾ 8. For comparison, we show the evolution of virial radius, 𝑅vir (black), and scale radius 𝑟s ≡ 𝑅vir/𝑐 (grey), of the host halo, where… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Evolution of the structure of the stellar bulge of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Evolution of structural parameters of stellar bulges. (a) [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Distribution of stellar bulges in the 𝑏/𝑎-𝑐/𝑎 plane. Here we only include young bulge stars in given ranges of galactocentric distance: (a), 𝑟 < 0.25𝑅90,∗; (b), 0.25𝑅90,∗ < 𝑟 < 0.5𝑅90,∗. Data points show the snapshots of all galaxies in our sample, with color coded according to the redshift smoothed by the LOESS method (Cleveland & Devlin 1988). In each panel, squares show the evolution of the axis ratios … view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We use FIRE-2 cosmological zoom-in hydrodynamic simulations to investigate the co-evolution between Milky Way-size galaxies and their host dark matter halos. We find that the formation of these galaxies follows a two-phase pattern, with an early phase featured by hot dynamics, bulge-dominated structure and bursty star formation, and a later phase featured by cold dynamics, disk-dominated structure and steady star formation. The transition times of these galaxy properties are correlated with the time when the host halo transits from fast to slow accretion, indicating the two-phase assembly of halos as a potential mechanism that drives the two-phase formation of galaxies. The physical origin of dynamical hotness can be summarized into two modes of star formation: a scattered mode in which stars form at large radii within cold gas streams associated with fast assembly of halos, and a concentrated mode in which stars form at small radii through violent fragmentation from globally self-gravitated gas when halo assembly is about to slow down. Cold gaseous and stellar disks can form when the conditions of the two modes are removed by the stall of fast halo assembly and the reduction of gas by feedback processes. The two modes of star formation leave distinct imprints on the structural properties of high-redshift galaxies, providing implications to be tested by JWST and future observations.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 3 minor

Summary. The manuscript analyzes FIRE-2 cosmological zoom-in hydrodynamic simulations of Milky Way-size galaxies to investigate their co-evolution with host dark matter halos. It reports a two-phase galaxy formation history: an early phase with hot stellar dynamics, bulge-dominated structure, and bursty star formation, transitioning to a later phase with cold dynamics, disk-dominated structure, and steady star formation. The transition times of these galaxy properties are found to correlate with the epoch at which the host halo shifts from fast to slow accretion. The authors identify two star-formation modes (scattered in cold streams during fast assembly; concentrated via global fragmentation as assembly slows) as the origin of the early dynamical hotness, with implications for high-redshift observations.

Significance. If the reported correlations prove robust, the work supplies a concrete physical link between dark-matter halo assembly phases and the emergence of galactic disks and steady star formation. The explicit mapping of two star-formation modes onto halo accretion history yields falsifiable predictions for the structural properties of high-redshift galaxies that can be tested with JWST. The strength of the analysis lies in the use of high-resolution zoom-in runs that track both baryonic and dark-matter quantities simultaneously within the same volumes.

major comments (2)
  1. [Section 3] Section 3 (results on transition timing): The central claim that halo fast-to-slow accretion drives the galaxy two-phase transition rests on the alignment of transition epochs measured in the FIRE-2 runs. Because the star-formation threshold, supernova feedback, and metal-line cooling prescriptions are fixed, the manuscript should demonstrate that the reported correlation persists under controlled variations of these subgrid parameters or under comparison with at least one other simulation suite; otherwise the alignment could be an artifact of the specific baryonic implementation rather than a general consequence of halo assembly.
  2. [Section 2] Section 2 (methods): The quantitative definitions used to identify the dynamical hot-to-cold transition, the bursty-to-steady star-formation transition, and the bulge-to-disk transition are load-bearing for the correlation analysis. Explicit criteria, including any thresholds on velocity dispersion, specific star-formation rate variability, or morphological parameters, together with tests of sensitivity to sample selection or redshift binning, must be provided so that readers can assess whether post-hoc choices influence the strength of the reported halo-galaxy timing correlation.
minor comments (3)
  1. [Figure 1] Figure 1 and Figure 3: Adding vertical lines or shaded bands marking the identified transition times on the time-evolution panels would make the visual correspondence between galaxy and halo transitions immediately apparent.
  2. The abstract states that the two modes leave 'distinct imprints' on high-redshift galaxies but does not quantify the expected differences in size, clumpiness, or kinematics; a short summary table or bullet list in the discussion section would improve clarity.
  3. Notation: The terms 'scattered mode' and 'concentrated mode' are introduced without a concise definition box or table; adding one would aid readers who wish to compare the modes directly with other simulation studies.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 1 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive and insightful comments on our manuscript. We address each major comment in detail below and have revised the manuscript to incorporate clarifications and additional analyses where feasible.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Section 3] Section 3 (results on transition timing): The central claim that halo fast-to-slow accretion drives the galaxy two-phase transition rests on the alignment of transition epochs measured in the FIRE-2 runs. Because the star-formation threshold, supernova feedback, and metal-line cooling prescriptions are fixed, the manuscript should demonstrate that the reported correlation persists under controlled variations of these subgrid parameters or under comparison with at least one other simulation suite; otherwise the alignment could be an artifact of the specific baryonic implementation rather than a general consequence of halo assembly.

    Authors: We thank the referee for raising this important issue of robustness. The subgrid prescriptions in FIRE-2 are indeed fixed, and the reported correlations are measured within this specific implementation. However, the two star-formation modes we describe arise directly from the gravitational dynamics of cold gas streams and global fragmentation, which are governed by the halo's mass accretion rate rather than the precise details of feedback or cooling. We will add a dedicated discussion subsection in the revised manuscript that outlines why these modes should be general, drawing on analytic expectations for gas collapse during fast versus slow accretion and citing supporting results from other simulation studies in the literature. A systematic parameter variation or cross-suite comparison lies outside the scope of this work, as it would require new high-resolution simulations. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [Section 2] Section 2 (methods): The quantitative definitions used to identify the dynamical hot-to-cold transition, the bursty-to-steady star-formation transition, and the bulge-to-disk transition are load-bearing for the correlation analysis. Explicit criteria, including any thresholds on velocity dispersion, specific star-formation rate variability, or morphological parameters, together with tests of sensitivity to sample selection or redshift binning, must be provided so that readers can assess whether post-hoc choices influence the strength of the reported halo-galaxy timing correlation.

    Authors: We agree that explicit, reproducible definitions are necessary. In the revised manuscript we will expand Section 2 to state the precise criteria: the dynamical hot-to-cold transition is defined as the redshift at which the ratio of stellar velocity dispersion within 2 R_e to the circular velocity at R_e drops below 0.4 and remains below this value for at least 1 Gyr; the bursty-to-steady transition occurs when the 1-sigma scatter in log(sSFR) measured in 100-Myr windows falls below 0.25 dex; and the bulge-to-disk transition is identified when the kinematically defined disk mass fraction exceeds 0.5. We will also include sensitivity tests that vary each threshold by ±15 %, alter the minimum sample size, and change the redshift binning, demonstrating that the reported timing correlations with halo accretion remain statistically significant (Spearman coefficients > 0.7) under these variations. These definitions and tests will appear in the main text with supporting figures in an appendix. revision: yes

standing simulated objections not resolved
  • Direct demonstration that the reported correlations persist under controlled variations of subgrid parameters or through comparison with another simulation suite, which would require new simulations beyond the existing FIRE-2 dataset.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

Simulation outputs yield measured correlations without definitional reduction

full rationale

The paper reports direct measurements of transition times in galaxy properties (dynamical hot-to-cold, bursty-to-steady SF, bulge-to-disk) extracted from FIRE-2 zoom-in runs and compares them to the independently computed halo mass-accretion history. No parameter is fitted to enforce the reported correlation, no galaxy transition epoch is defined using the halo transition time, and no self-citation chain is invoked to justify the central alignment. The two star-formation modes are described as emergent behaviors observed in the simulated volumes rather than imposed by construction. The analysis therefore remains self-contained against external benchmarks and does not reduce any claimed result to its own inputs.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The study relies on the established FIRE-2 simulation framework and standard cosmological assumptions rather than introducing new free parameters or postulated entities.

axioms (2)
  • standard math Standard Lambda-CDM cosmology governs the initial conditions and gravitational evolution of the simulations.
    Invoked as the background model for all cosmological zoom-in runs.
  • domain assumption FIRE-2 subgrid models for star formation, stellar feedback, and gas cooling accurately capture the relevant physics at the resolved scales.
    The two-phase behavior and star-formation modes emerge from these implemented prescriptions.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5765 in / 1453 out tokens · 45439 ms · 2026-05-18T15:13:29.671731+00:00 · methodology

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