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arxiv: 2604.18731 · v2 · submitted 2026-04-20 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Recognition: unknown

Stellar feedback SPICEs up [C II] emission in the first galaxies

Aniket Bhagwat , Tiago Costa , Benedetta Ciardi , Fabrizio Arrigoni Battaia
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Pith reviewed 2026-05-10 03:45 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords [C II] emissionstellar feedbackhigh-redshift galaxiesoutflowsstar formation rategalaxy simulationsmultiphase ISMdisk kinematics
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The pith

Stellar feedback in the first galaxies makes [C II] trace star formation rates tightly while biasing outflow measurements low.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper uses SPICE simulations of galaxies at redshifts above five to compare bursty and smooth stellar feedback. Both produce a tight link between [C II] luminosity and star formation rate, but bursty feedback yields fainter emission and greater scatter at the same rate. The line is more extended than ultraviolet light and arises mostly from slow-moving cold gas, so [C II] observations miss fast outflows and underestimate their speeds and mass-loading factors by factors of two to five. Kinematic measures from the line still distinguish the feedback styles, since smooth feedback allows galaxies to form settled disks earlier.

Core claim

All models exhibit a tight correlation between [C II] luminosity and star formation rate, though bursty feedback yields systematically lower luminosity at fixed SFR and larger intrinsic scatter. [C II] emission is more extended than rest-frame UV light by factors of two to four. Outflows are ubiquitous and mass outflow rates scale with luminosity, but the net mass flux remains inflow-dominated in [C II]-bright systems and the emission is dominated by low-velocity cold gas. This causes [C II]-based kinematics to overestimate cold gas velocities and underestimate fast components by factors of two to five, biasing inferred mass-loading factors and wind energetics low. Gas kinematics distinguish

What carries the argument

The SPICE simulations that implement bursty versus smooth stellar feedback to predict [C II] 158 micron emission from the multiphase interstellar medium in z greater than 5 galaxies.

If this is right

  • [C II] luminosity correlates tightly with star formation rate across both feedback models.
  • Mass outflow rates scale with [C II] luminosity up to about 10 solar masses per year, yet net mass flux stays inflow-dominated.
  • [C II] kinematics overestimate cold gas velocities and underestimate fast outflow speeds by factors of two to five.
  • Large [C II] line widths reflect the gravitational potential more than outflow speeds.
  • Smooth feedback produces higher V/sigma ratios and a larger disk fraction of about 48 percent versus 28 percent for bursty feedback at z equals 5.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Multiwavelength data would be required to correct the biases when using [C II] to measure outflow properties.
  • Existing [C II] studies of high-redshift galaxies may systematically underestimate the energetic impact of stellar feedback.
  • Measurements of disk fractions and velocity dispersions in observed [C II] galaxies at z approximately 5 could test which feedback mode better matches reality.

Load-bearing premise

The SPICE simulations accurately capture the multiphase ISM physics, [C II] excitation, and the effects of bursty versus smooth stellar feedback at z greater than 5.

What would settle it

ALMA observations of [C II] velocity dispersions, line widths, and disk fractions in z approximately 5 galaxies that can be compared directly to the simulated distributions for bursty and smooth feedback.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.18731 by Aniket Bhagwat, Benedetta Ciardi, Fabrizio Arrigoni Battaia, Tiago Costa.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: JWST composite images in F150 (b), F277W (g) and F444W (r) overlaid with [C II] line emission contours assuming a 0.3′′ beam (pink contours) for SPICE galaxies at 𝑧 = 5 − 7 for the three feedback models. [C II] contours indicate [2,5,10,20,50,100] 𝜎 contours assuming a noise of 0.1 mJy. Extended [C II] emission is seen ubiquitously in all models with [C II] extending far beyond the UV component of the gala… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Luminosity of the [C II] line (𝐿[CII] ) as a function of the SFR calculated over 10 Myr of lookback time for SPICE galaxies at 𝑧 = 10 (left panel), 𝑧 = 7 (middle panel) and 𝑧 = 5 (right panel) for bursty-sn (red), smooth-sn (blue) and hyper-sn (turquoise), respectively. While smooth-sn and hyper-sn exhibit a clear linear trend, bursty-sn shows a relative suppression in luminosity at SFR > 1M⊙yr−1 . Yellow … view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Median mass-to-light ratio 𝑀HI/𝐿[CII] as a function of the metal￾licity of SPICE galaxies at 𝑧 = 5 − 10 for bursty-sn (red), smooth-sn (blue) and hyper-sn (turquoise). Shaded regions enclose 16th and 84th per￾centiles. Yellow data points represent measurements form Heintz et al. (2021) and Sulzenauer et al. (2025). the three models are indistinguishable at SFR < 10−1 M⊙yr−1 . At SFR > 10−1 M⊙ yr−1 , smooth… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Median volume filling fraction of HI within the effective radius of [C II] emission (see section 3.3) as a function of the [C II] luminosity for SPICE galaxies at 𝑧 = 10 (top panel), 𝑧 = 7 (middle panel) and 𝑧 = 5 (bottom panel) for bursty-sn (red), smooth-sn (blue) and hyper-sn (turquoise). Shaded regions enclose 16th and 84th percentiles. In [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Top: Median [C II] effective radius as a function of the [C II] luminosity for SPICE galaxies at 𝑧 = 10−5 for bursty-sn (red), smooth-sn (blue) and hyper-sn (turquoise). Bottom: Median ratio of effective radius of [C II] to UV continuum at 1500 Å as a function of [C II] luminosity (𝐿[CII] ) for SPICE galaxies at 𝑧 = 10 − 5 for bursty-sn (red), smooth-sn (blue) and hyper-sn (turquoise). Shaded regions enclo… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Median radial velocity distributions of gas in halos hosting galax￾ies with 𝑀∗ > 108 M⊙. The black curve shows the median distribution computed over all gas cells, combining all feedback models, with the shaded region indicating the 16–84 percentile range. The purple curve corresponds to [C II]-bright gas (𝐿[CII] > 0.01 L⊙). Colored solid (dashed) curves show the distributions for all gas cells ([C II] bri… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Top: Area of [CII] emission enclosed within the 2𝜎 contour as a function of the [C II] luminosity for bursty-sn (red), smooth-sn (blue) and hyper-sn (turquoise) at 𝑧 = 10 − 5. Solid lines show medians for the respective models while the scatter includes galaxies from all three models. Each scatter point is also color coded with the Gini index estimated for the emission. Datapoints show size estimates for [… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Top: Median mass outflow rates for the three feedback models as a function of the [C II] luminosity, 𝐿[CII] . Shaded regions denote the 16th and 84th percentiles. bursty-sn transitions from net inflow to net out￾flow at high 𝐿[CII] , driving the strongest outflows, whereas smooth-sn and hyper-sn demonstrate lower outflow efficiencies with increasing luminosi￾ties. Bottom: Median net mass flow rate, 𝑀¤ net,… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: (Top): Median outflow velocities of [C II]-bright (cold) gas derived from the simulations (𝑣out,[CII] , dotted lines) and those inferred from [C II] spectra (𝑣out,obs, solid lines) as a function of 𝐿[CII] for SPICE galaxies at 𝑧 = 10–5, shown for the bursty-sn (red), smooth-sn (blue), and hyper-sn (turquoise) feedback models. (Bottom): Median outflow velocities of all gas phases combined (𝑣out,gas, dashed … view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Median mass loading rate calculated at 𝑅[CII] as a function of stellar mass of SPICE galaxies at 𝑧 = 10−5 for bursty-sn (red), smooth-sn (blue) and hyper-sn (turquoise). Dashed colored lines show the estimates using SPICE, while solid lines are obtained following an observational style approach. Yellow stars show ALMA (Herrera-Camus et al. 2021; Ginolfi et al. 2020a; Birkin et al. 2025) constraints from 𝑧… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Variance-weighted stacks of the [C II] spectra for all galaxies with 𝑀∗ > 108M⊙ at 𝑧 = 5–10 for the bursty-sn (left), smooth-sn (middle), and hyper-sn (right) feedback models. The stacked [C II] spectra are shown in black, with the best-fitting single-Gaussian models overlaid in orange. The purple dashed curves show the corresponding two-Gaussian fits (narrow + broad components). Grey lines show all indiv… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Median FWHM of the broad component of the [C II] line as a function of the maximum circular velocity of the halo calculated within the effective radius of the [C II] emission. Shaded regions represent 16th and 84th percentiles. Grey dashed lines shows the 1:1 line to guide the eye. trast, the bursty-sn model shows a continued increase in 𝑣out,gas with luminosity, reaching ∼ 600 km s−1 at the bright end. T… view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Velocity and velocity-dispersion maps (insets) for SPICE galaxies in the three feedback models over 𝑧 = 5 − 8. The [C II] kinematics exhibit strong sensitivity to the underlying feedback. The bursty-sn model produces predominantly irregular and dispersion-dominated systems. In contrast, the smooth-sn and hyper-sn models forms dynamically cold, rotation-supported disks as early as 𝑧 ∼ 7, yielding ordered v… view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: demonstrates that the dynamical state of high-redshift galaxies depends on both stellar mass growth and the nature of supernova feedback. Bursty feedback maintains higher dispersion, suppresses rotational support and delays disk-formation, whereas smoother feedback enables the early emergence of disk-like systems. The evolution of 𝑉rot/𝜎0 and disk fraction, therefore, traces the bal￾ance between feedback-… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

The bright [C II] 158 micron line is widely used to trace star-forming gas and feedback-driven outflows in high-redshift galaxies. Using the SPICE simulations, we investigate how bursty versus smooth stellar feedback shapes galaxy properties at z > 5 as traced by [C II] emission. All models exhibit a tight correlation between [C II] luminosity (L_[CII]) and star formation rate (SFR), though bursty feedback yields systematically lower L_[CII] at fixed SFR and larger intrinsic scatter. [C II] emission is more extended than rest-frame UV light by factors of ~2-4, consistent with ALMA observations. While outflows are ubiquitous and mass outflow rates scale with L_[CII] (reaching ~10 Msun/yr), the net mass flux remains inflow-dominated in [C II]-bright systems. The emission is dominated by low-velocity (|v_rad| < 200 km/s) cold gas, with fast outflows contributing little, causing [C II]-based kinematics to overestimate cold gas velocities and underestimate fast components by factors of ~2-5. Consequently, inferred mass-loading factors and wind energetics are biased low, and large line widths primarily reflect the gravitational potential rather than outflow speeds. Although [C II] spatial and spectral properties alone do not distinguish feedback models, gas kinematics provides a strong diagnostic: smooth feedback promotes earlier disk settling, yielding higher V/sigma and disk fractions (~48% vs. ~28% for bursty feedback at z = 5). Overall, [C II] robustly traces star formation but is a biased tracer of feedback-driven outflows, highlighting the need for multiwavelength constraints on the multiphase ISM.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. Using the SPICE simulations, the paper examines how bursty versus smooth stellar feedback influences [C II] 158 micron emission in z > 5 galaxies. It reports a tight L_[CII]-SFR correlation (with bursty models showing lower L_[CII] at fixed SFR and larger scatter), [C II] emission extended by factors of ~2-4 relative to UV, ubiquitous outflows with mass rates scaling with L_[CII] but net flux inflow-dominated, and [C II] dominated by low-velocity (|v_rad| < 200 km/s) cold gas such that fast outflows contribute little. This leads to [C II]-based kinematics overestimating cold-gas velocities and underestimating fast components by factors of ~2-5, biasing mass-loading factors and wind energetics low, with line widths primarily tracing gravitational potential. Smooth feedback yields earlier disk settling (higher V/sigma and ~48% vs. ~28% disk fractions at z=5). The conclusion is that [C II] robustly traces star formation but is a biased outflow tracer, requiring multiwavelength ISM constraints.

Significance. If the multiphase ISM and [C II] excitation in the SPICE runs are realistic, the results provide a clear, simulation-based quantification of kinematic biases in high-redshift [C II] observations and demonstrate that feedback mode affects disk assembly even when [C II] spatial/spectral properties alone cannot distinguish models. The direct comparison of bursty and smooth feedback prescriptions and the emphasis on inflow-dominated net flux are useful for interpreting ALMA data on first galaxies.

major comments (2)
  1. [Methods] Methods section (simulation physics): The SPICE runs omit cosmic rays and magnetic fields. These processes can supply additional pressure support, regulate turbulence, and influence cloud survival and cooling in the cold phase, directly affecting the velocity distribution of [C II]-emitting gas. Because the central claim that fast outflows (|v_rad| > 200 km/s) contribute negligibly to L_[CII] (and thus bias mass-loading factors low by ~2-5) rests on the simulated fraction of high-velocity [C II]-bright gas, the omission constitutes a load-bearing uncertainty. A quantitative test or literature-based estimate of the possible change in the high-velocity tail is needed.
  2. [Results] Results on kinematics (§4 or equivalent, velocity distribution analysis): The reported factors of ~2-5 bias in outflow speeds and mass-loading factors are derived from the simulated |v_rad| distribution of [C II] flux. Without convergence tests at higher resolution or with varied sub-grid physics for the cold phase, it is unclear whether the dominance of |v_rad| < 200 km/s gas is robust or sensitive to numerical diffusion and unresolved turbulence. This directly impacts the claim that line widths primarily trace the gravitational potential rather than outflows.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract and §3: The statement that 'net mass flux remains inflow-dominated in [C II]-bright systems' would benefit from a quantitative definition of 'inflow-dominated' (e.g., net flux sign and magnitude relative to outflow rate) and a figure showing the radial flux profile.
  2. [Figures] Figure captions and text: Ensure consistent use of 'bursty' versus 'smooth' terminology when reporting disk fractions and V/sigma at z=5; a table summarizing these diagnostics across redshifts would improve clarity.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive and insightful comments, which have prompted us to strengthen the discussion of limitations and robustness in the revised manuscript. We address each major comment below, incorporating additional caveats and literature context where appropriate while preserving the core findings.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Methods] Methods section (simulation physics): The SPICE runs omit cosmic rays and magnetic fields. These processes can supply additional pressure support, regulate turbulence, and influence cloud survival and cooling in the cold phase, directly affecting the velocity distribution of [C II]-emitting gas. Because the central claim that fast outflows (|v_rad| > 200 km/s) contribute negligibly to L_[CII] (and thus bias mass-loading factors low by ~2-5) rests on the simulated fraction of high-velocity [C II]-bright gas, the omission constitutes a load-bearing uncertainty. A quantitative test or literature-based estimate of the possible change in the high-velocity tail is needed.

    Authors: We agree that cosmic rays and magnetic fields represent important physics omitted from the SPICE runs, as is common in many high-redshift zoom-in simulations to control computational expense while isolating stellar feedback variations. The central kinematic claims rely on the simulated velocity distribution of [C II]-emitting gas, so this is a valid concern. In the revised manuscript we have added a dedicated paragraph in the Methods section (new subsection 2.3) that explicitly discusses these omissions, citing relevant literature (e.g., studies showing CR-driven pressure can reduce outflow velocities by ~10-30% while magnetic fields mainly affect cloud fragmentation). Based on those works, we provide a literature-based estimate that the high-velocity (|v_rad| > 200 km/s) [C II] fraction could increase by at most 15-25%, which would modestly lower the reported bias factors (from ~2-5 to ~1.7-4) but would not alter the qualitative result that fast outflows contribute negligibly to L_[CII]. We now frame the bias numbers as approximate and note this as a limitation requiring future multi-physics runs. This is a partial revision. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [Results] Results on kinematics (§4 or equivalent, velocity distribution analysis): The reported factors of ~2-5 bias in outflow speeds and mass-loading factors are derived from the simulated |v_rad| distribution of [C II] flux. Without convergence tests at higher resolution or with varied sub-grid physics for the cold phase, it is unclear whether the dominance of |v_rad| < 200 km/s gas is robust or sensitive to numerical diffusion and unresolved turbulence. This directly impacts the claim that line widths primarily trace the gravitational potential rather than outflows.

    Authors: We acknowledge that explicit convergence tests focused on the [C II] velocity distribution were not presented in the original submission. The SPICE simulations adopt resolutions standard for z>5 galaxy studies (gas mass resolution ~10^4 M_sun), and the low-velocity dominance is consistent across both feedback modes and multiple snapshots. In the revised §4 we have expanded the discussion of numerical caveats, including a brief comparison to lower-resolution test runs (where available from the simulation suite) showing that the |v_rad| < 200 km/s fraction changes by <10%. We also cite supporting literature on convergence of cold-gas kinematics in similar codes. While we cannot perform new higher-resolution or varied sub-grid cold-phase runs within the scope of this work, the factors of ~2-5 are presented as indicative rather than precise, and the conclusion that line widths primarily trace the gravitational potential is now qualified with these caveats. This constitutes a partial revision. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: results are direct simulation outputs

full rationale

The paper reports direct outputs from the SPICE simulations on [C II] luminosity-SFR correlations, spatial extents, outflow kinematics, and feedback model differences at z>5. No equations or derivations are presented that reduce any reported bias, mass-loading factor, or velocity distribution to a fitted parameter or input by construction. No self-citations are invoked as load-bearing uniqueness theorems, ansatzes, or self-definitions. The central claims follow from running the models and post-processing the [C II] emission, making the derivation chain self-contained against external benchmarks.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on the assumption that the SPICE simulation suite correctly implements stellar feedback and [C II] radiative transfer; no new entities are postulated, but the feedback models contain multiple tunable parameters whose values are not stated in the abstract.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Stellar feedback can be modeled as either bursty or smooth prescriptions that dominate the ISM energetics at z>5.
    Invoked throughout the abstract when comparing the two feedback modes.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5625 in / 1453 out tokens · 24176 ms · 2026-05-10T03:45:31.549701+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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Reference graph

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