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arxiv: 2604.21147 · v1 · submitted 2026-04-22 · 💻 cs.NI

StarLoc: Pinpointing Transmitting LEO Satellites from a Single Passive Array

Ishani Janveja , Jida Zhang , Emerson Sie , Deepak Vasisht This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-09 22:36 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 💻 cs.NI
keywords LEO satellite localization3D angle of arrivalorbital dynamicsinterferometrypassive geolocationStarlinkspectrum management
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The pith

StarLoc locates transmitting LEO satellites in three dimensions using three antennas arranged in a flat plane by exploiting orbital dynamics.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

StarLoc shows how to determine the three-dimensional position of a low-Earth-orbit satellite from a single ground station equipped with only three antennas arranged in a flat plane. The key is that orbital mechanics constrain a satellite's trajectory to a two-dimensional surface within three-dimensional space, sharply reducing the unknowns that must be solved. With this reduction, standard angle-of-arrival measurements from the three antennas become sufficient to recover both direction and range. This capability matters for applications that need to identify which satellite is transmitting, manage spectrum usage, or maintain positioning when GPS is unavailable. The authors demonstrate the approach on real transmissions from Starlink satellites.

Core claim

StarLoc is a system that combines orbital modeling with interferometric angle-of-arrival estimation to geolocate transmitting satellites in low Earth orbits. The design rests on the observation that satellite motion follows orbital dynamics and therefore traces a two-dimensional manifold inside three-dimensional space. This constraint lowers the degrees of freedom so that three antennas lying in a single plane can recover the full three-dimensional location and track the satellite. Evaluation on signals from eighty-one Starlink satellites shows that the system achieves angular accuracy of 0.7 degrees and range accuracy of 5 kilometers.

What carries the argument

The orbital-dynamics constraint that confines satellite motion to a 2D manifold in 3D space, which allows three planar antennas to solve for full 3D position via interferometric angle-of-arrival.

If this is right

  • A passive ground station can track and identify individual LEO satellites without active cooperation from the satellites.
  • Spectrum regulators gain a practical tool to attribute specific transmissions to particular satellites.
  • Navigation and positioning services obtain an independent ground-based method that can verify or supplement GPS data in orbit.
  • Hardware cost and complexity drop because a small flat array replaces the need for a full three-dimensional antenna configuration.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same manifold-reduction principle could apply to other objects whose paths follow predictable geometric constraints, such as certain aircraft routes.
  • Networks of these low-cost arrays might provide scalable monitoring coverage as the number of LEO satellites grows.
  • Feeding the derived range estimates back into orbital models could iteratively improve long-term position predictions.

Load-bearing premise

Satellite motion is governed by orbital dynamics and therefore lies on a two-dimensional surface inside three-dimensional space.

What would settle it

Collecting simultaneous angle measurements from three antennas during known Starlink satellite passes and finding that the reconstructed positions fall outside the predicted orbital manifold or exceed 0.7 degrees angular error and 5 km range error.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.21147 by Deepak Vasisht, Emerson Sie, Ishani Janveja, Jida Zhang.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: StarLoc System Overview. StarLoc localizes a trans [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p001_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Effect of antenna spacing and number of elements [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Minimum 3D-angle and orbital range separation [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Left: Geometric model for 3D localization with Star [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Error |𝑣 2 𝑟 − 𝐺𝑀| for different orbital heights Above we discussed how satellite velocity 𝑣 can be obtained from orbital radius 𝑅. Finally, StarLoc optimizes Eq. 5. Since 𝑅 itself depends on our chosen value of ℎ, we parameterize the optimization in terms of the satellite’s orbit height (ℎ) above the Earth’s surface and find the best value of ℎ by optimizing: ℎ ★ = argmin ℎ [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: StarLoc’s approach to pruning AoA candidates: (i) Phase difference between antenna pairs over time. (ii) All AoA [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Doppler-profiles– Top: Doppler shift from tracked [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Elevation, azimuth and Doppler profiles of AoA [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: StarLoc’s hardware and software design In contrast, the Clearbox system [26] uses omni-directional anten￾nas for AoA measurements but operates at VHF/UHF frequencies where path loss is substantially lower. Such antennas are infeasible in the Ku-band where modern high-bandwidth LEO constellations like Starlink operate. Despite limited angular coverage, StarLoc requires no prior in￾formation about satellite … view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: 8 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Experimental Setup – We use a 2D array of LNBs to sniff the transmissions of satellites passing overhead at 8 different [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Starlink beacon signal statistics [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_11.png] view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Overall accuracy of positioning with StarLoc, benchmarked against Clearbox systems [26] [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_12.png] view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Elevation and azimuth errors in locating a satellite. Azimuth error is high at high elevations (as azimuth is undefined [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_13.png] view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Impact of antenna orientation. K=1: Median = 0.73 K=2: Median = 16.98 K=3: Median = 17.39 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_14.png] view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Impact of incorrect ambiguity resolution on AoA [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_15.png] view at source ↗
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Effect of antenna spacing on 3D-Angle error. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_16.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

This paper focuses on 3D localization of transmitting satellites in low Earth orbits (LEO). 3D localization of transmitters in low orbits is an important emerging problem for many applications such as spectrum management, orbit determination, and backup for GPS failures in orbit. We present StarLoc -- a system to geolocate transmitters in space using a combination of orbital modeling and a new interferometric 3D angle-of-arrival estimation technique. StarLoc's design relies on a unique insight -- the motion of satellites is governed by orbital dynamics and is therefore along a 2D manifold in a 3D space. This reduces the degrees of freedom in satellite motion and allows us to 3D-locate and track a satellite with just three antennas in a 2D plane. We evaluate the system using signal transmissions from 81 Starlink satellites. Our results show that StarLoc can estimate the 3D-angle of a satellite within 0.7 degrees and the orbital range within 5 km. Our dataset and implementation are available at: https://connectedsystemslab.github.io/starloc.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper presents StarLoc, a passive 3D localization system for transmitting LEO satellites (e.g., Starlink) that uses a single planar array of three antennas. It combines interferometric angle-of-arrival (AoA) estimation over time with orbital dynamics modeling, exploiting the fact that satellite trajectories lie on a 2D manifold in 3D space to reduce degrees of freedom and recover full position from planar measurements. Evaluation on 81 real Starlink transmissions reports 0.7° accuracy in 3D angle and 5 km accuracy in orbital range, with code and data released.

Significance. If the central results hold, StarLoc demonstrates a hardware-minimal approach to passive satellite geolocation that could support spectrum management, orbit determination, and GPS augmentation. The real-world evaluation on actual Starlink signals supplies external grounding that strengthens the claims relative to simulation-only studies; the orbital-manifold reduction is a clean insight if shown to be robust.

major comments (2)
  1. [Evaluation and orbital-fitting sections] The headline accuracies (0.7° 3D-angle, 5 km range) rest on the orbital-manifold constraint supplying the missing degree of freedom for range and out-of-plane elements. The manuscript does not include a sensitivity analysis or condition-number study of the fitting procedure with respect to observation length or geometry (e.g., near-zenith passes), leaving open whether angular-rate diversity is always sufficient to avoid degeneracy.
  2. [Results and evaluation] No explicit error propagation, exclusion criteria for the 81 passes, or breakdown by pass duration/geometry is provided to support the reported performance numbers. This makes it difficult to verify that the 5 km range figure is not driven by a subset of favorable trajectories.
minor comments (2)
  1. [System design] Clarify the exact antenna spacing, carrier frequency, and sampling parameters used for the interferometric AoA measurements.
  2. [Abstract and reproducibility statement] The dataset release link should indicate whether raw I/Q captures or only derived AoA time series are included to support independent reproduction.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive comments on our manuscript. The suggestions will help strengthen the evaluation and clarify the robustness of our results. We address each major comment below and commit to revisions that incorporate the requested analyses and details.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: The headline accuracies (0.7° 3D-angle, 5 km range) rest on the orbital-manifold constraint supplying the missing degree of freedom for range and out-of-plane elements. The manuscript does not include a sensitivity analysis or condition-number study of the fitting procedure with respect to observation length or geometry (e.g., near-zenith passes), leaving open whether angular-rate diversity is always sufficient to avoid degeneracy.

    Authors: We agree that a sensitivity analysis of the orbital fitting procedure is valuable for demonstrating robustness. In the revised manuscript, we will add a dedicated subsection in the evaluation that includes a condition-number study of the manifold-constrained solver. This analysis will vary observation length, pass geometry (including near-zenith cases), and quantify the angular-rate diversity provided by the 2D orbital manifold. We will show that degeneracy is avoided for the trajectory durations and geometries present in our 81-pass dataset, thereby supporting that the reported accuracies are not artifacts of the constraint alone. revision: yes

  2. Referee: No explicit error propagation, exclusion criteria for the 81 passes, or breakdown by pass duration/geometry is provided to support the reported performance numbers. This makes it difficult to verify that the 5 km range figure is not driven by a subset of favorable trajectories.

    Authors: We acknowledge the need for greater transparency in the results section. We will expand the evaluation to include: (1) an explicit error-propagation derivation for both the 3D angle and range estimates under the manifold model; (2) the precise exclusion criteria applied to the 81 Starlink passes (e.g., minimum duration, SNR thresholds, and data-quality filters); and (3) a breakdown of localization errors stratified by pass duration and geometry (elevation angle, azimuth diversity). These additions will allow readers to confirm that the 5 km range accuracy is representative across the dataset rather than driven by a favorable subset. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: physical orbital constraint and real-data evaluation are independent

full rationale

The paper's core derivation uses the external physical fact that LEO satellite motion is constrained to a 2D manifold by orbital dynamics (an established prior, not derived from measurements or self-citation). This reduces DOF to enable 3D localization from a planar 3-antenna array via interferometry plus orbital fitting. Performance claims (0.7° angle, 5 km range) come from direct evaluation on 81 real Starlink transmissions, supplying external grounding. No self-definitional loops, fitted inputs renamed as predictions, load-bearing self-citations, uniqueness theorems imported from authors, or ansatzes smuggled via prior work are present in the abstract or described chain. The result does not reduce to its inputs by construction.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The approach rests on standard orbital mechanics and a new interferometric method; no free parameters or invented entities are described in the abstract.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Satellite motion is governed by orbital dynamics and therefore lies along a 2D manifold in 3D space.
    This premise is invoked to reduce degrees of freedom so that three planar antennas suffice for 3D localization.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5503 in / 1247 out tokens · 25155 ms · 2026-05-09T22:36:22.309250+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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