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arxiv: 2604.25835 · v1 · submitted 2026-04-28 · ⚛️ physics.ins-det · hep-ex

Recognition: unknown

Embedded underwater front-end electronics for the 3-inch photomultipliers in the JUNO experiment

Cedric Cerna , Miao He , Xiaoshan Jiang , Juan Pedro Ochoa-Ricoux , Frederic Perrot , Angel Abusleme , Thomas Adam , Fengpeng An
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Costas Andreopoulos Giuseppe Andronico Joao Pedro Athayde Marcondes de Andre Nikolay Anfimov Vito Antonelli Tatiana Antoshkina Didier Auguste Nikita Balashov Andrea Barresi Davide Basilico Eric Baussan Marco Beretta Antonio Bergnoli Svetlana Biktemerova Thilo Birkenfeld Simon Blyth Manuel Boehles Anastasia Bolshakova Mathieu Bongrand Clement Bordereau Matteo Borghesi Dominique Breton Augusto Brigatti Riccardo Brugnera Riccardo Bruno Antonio Budano Jose Busto Marcel Buchner Anatael Cabrera Barbara Caccianiga Hao Cai Xiao Cai Yi-zhou Cai Stephane Callier Antonio Cammi Augustin Campeny Guofu Cao Jun Cao Yaoqi Cao Rossella Caruso Nunzio Giudice Maxim Gonchar Guanda Gong Guanghua Gong Yuri Gornushkin Marco Grassi Maxim Gromov Vasily Gromov Minhao Gu Xiaofei Gu Yu Gu Mengyun Guan Yuduo Guan Nunzio Guardone Rosa Maria Guizzetti Cong Guo Wanlei Guo Caren Hagner Hechong Han Yang Han Chuanhui Hao Vidhya Thara Hariharan Wei He Xinhai He Tobias Heinz Patrick Hellmuth Yuekun Heng Rafael Herrera YuenKeung Hor Shaojing Hou Fatima Houria Gerard Claverie Catia Clementi Barbara Clerbaux Claudio Coletta Davide Chiesa Pietro Chimenti Ziliang Chu Artem Chukanov Marta Colomer Molla Fabio Mantovani Stefano M. Mari Agnese Martini Johann Martyn Matthias Mayer Davit Mayilyan Yue Meng Anselmo Meregaglia Lino Miramonti Michele Montuschi Iwan Morton-Blake Xiangyi Mu Lakshmi Murgod Massimiliano Nastasi Dmitry V. Naumov Elena Naumova Igor Nemchenok Elisabeth Neuerburg Alexey Nikolaev Feipeng Ning Zhe Ning Yujie Niu Hiroshi Nunokawa Lothar Oberauer Sebastian Olivares Alexander Olshevskiy Domizia Orestano Fausto Ortica Rainer Othegraven Yifei Pan Alessandro Paoloni George Parker Yatian Pei Luca Pelicci Anguo Peng Yu Peng Zhaoyuan Peng Elisa Percalli Willy Perrin Fabrizio Petrucci Oliver Pilarczyk Artyom Popov Pascal Poussot Ezio Previtali Fazhi Qi Ming Qi Sen Qian Xiaohui Qian Zhaoxiang Wu Zhi Wu Michael Wurm Jacques Wurtz Dongmei Xia Shishen Xian Ziqian Xiang Fei Xiao Pengfei Xiao Tianying Xiao Xiang Xiao Wei-Jun Xie Xiaochuan Xie Yuguang Xie Zhizhong Xing Benda Xu Cheng Xu Chuang Xu Donglian Xu Fanrong Xu Jiayang Xu Jilei Xu Jinghuan Xu Meihang Xu Shiwen Xu Xunjie Xu Dongyang Xue Jingqin Xue Baojun Yan Qiyu Yan Taylor Yan Xiongbo Yan Changgen Yang Chengfeng Yang Fengfan Yang Jie Yang Kaiwei Yang Lei Yang Pengfei Yang Xiaoyu Yang Xuhui Yang Zekun Yang Haifeng Yao Jiaxuan Ye Mei Ye Ziping Ye Frederic Yermia Jilong Yin Weiqing Yin Xiaohao Yin Zhengyun You Boxiang Yu Chiye Yu Chunxu Yu Hongzhao Yu Peidong Yu Simi Yu Zeyuan Yu Cenxi Yuan Noman Zafar Jilberto Zamora Vitalii Zavadskyi Fanrui Zeng Shan Zeng Tingxuan Zeng Liang Zhan Bin Zhang Feiyang Zhang Han Zhang Hangchang Zhang Haosen Zhang Honghao Zhang Jiawen Zhang Jie Zhang Jingbo Zhang Junwei Zhang Lei Zhang Ping Zhang Qingmin Zhang Rongping Zhang Shiqi Zhang Shuihan Zhang Tao Zhang Xiaomei Zhang Xu Zhang Xuantong Zhang Yibing Zhang Yinhong Zhang Yiyu Zhang Yongpeng Zhang Yuanyuan Zhang Yumei Zhang Zhicheng Zhang Zhijian Zhang Jie Zhao Runze Zhao Shujun Zhao Yangheng Zheng Li Zhou Shun Zhou Xiang Zhou Xing Zhou Jingsen Zhu Kangfu Zhu Kejun Zhu Bo Zhuang Honglin Zhuang Jiaheng Zou
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Pith reviewed 2026-05-07 14:02 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ⚛️ physics.ins-det hep-ex
keywords JUNOSPMT3-inch photomultiplierunderwater electronicsfront-end readoutneutrino detectorsingle photoelectron detectiondata acquisition
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The pith

Underwater electronics for JUNO's 3-inch photomultipliers reach 0.04 photoelectron noise with under 0.4 percent crosstalk.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper describes the design of compact front-end electronics boards built to operate underwater and read out the 25,600 small photomultiplier tubes placed between the larger tubes in the JUNO detector. These boards digitize signals from 128 channels per unit, apply synchronized time-stamping, measure charge, package events, and control data flow at up to 57 MB/s while keeping the entire system submerged and pressurized. Laboratory validation shows electronic noise as low as 0.04 photoelectrons and crosstalk below 0.4 percent, levels the authors state are required for reliable detection of single photoelectrons from neutrino-induced scintillation light. A reader would care because these performance numbers determine whether the additional small-PMT layer can actually improve JUNO's overall energy resolution and background rejection.

Core claim

The authors report a complete underwater readout chain for the small photomultiplier system that digitizes 128 PMT channels per unit, provides synchronized time-stamping and charge measurement, manages event packaging and bandwidth at 57 MB/s, and achieves noise levels of 0.04 photoelectrons with crosstalk below 0.4 percent. Board-level and system-level tests confirm the design meets the requirements for single-photoelectron detection and high-rate operation. The full SPMT system has been integrated and installed in JUNO.

What carries the argument

The embedded front-end electronics unit that performs analog-to-digital conversion, precise time-stamping, charge integration, and data formatting for groups of 128 PMT channels while housed in a mechanically and thermally integrated package suitable for underwater deployment.

If this is right

  • The system enables reliable single-photoelectron detection for the entire SPMT array under high-rate conditions.
  • Data acquisition, control, and bandwidth management are handled by the firmware architecture across all units.
  • The SPMT system is now fully installed and ready for commissioning and physics data taking.
  • The design supports the low-radioactivity and multi-purpose goals of the 20-kton liquid-scintillator detector.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the performance holds after installation, the same electronics approach could be adapted for other large underwater neutrino or dark-matter detectors that need compact low-noise readout.
  • The achieved noise floor may allow the small PMTs to contribute meaningfully to JUNO's sensitivity for low-energy events such as solar neutrinos or geoneutrinos.
  • Long-term monitoring data from the installed system will be needed to check for any degradation from pressure, temperature cycling, or radiation that lab tests could not fully replicate.

Load-bearing premise

Laboratory validation procedures and tests on the boards will accurately predict performance once the electronics are fully submerged, pressurized, and exposed to the actual radiation and temperature conditions inside the JUNO detector.

What would settle it

A commissioning measurement after full installation that shows noise above 0.1 photoelectrons or crosstalk above 1 percent under operating conditions in the JUNO detector would indicate the performance claims do not hold.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.25835 by Agnese Martini, Alessandro Paoloni, Alexander Olshevskiy, Alexey Nikolaev, Anastasia Bolshakova, Anatael Cabrera, Andrea Barresi, Angel Abusleme, Anguo Peng, Anselmo Meregaglia, Antonio Bergnoli, Antonio Budano, Antonio Cammi, Artem Chukanov, Artyom Popov, Augustin Campeny, Augusto Brigatti, Baojun Yan, Barbara Caccianiga, Barbara Clerbaux, Benda Xu, Bin Zhang, Boxiang Yu, Bo Zhuang, Caren Hagner, Catia Clementi, Cedric Cerna, Cenxi Yuan, Changgen Yang, Chengfeng Yang, Cheng Xu, Chiye Yu, Chuang Xu, Chuanhui Hao, Chunxu Yu, Claudio Coletta, Clement Bordereau, Cong Guo, Costas Andreopoulos, Davide Basilico, Davide Chiesa, Davit Mayilyan, Didier Auguste, Dmitry V. Naumov, Dominique Breton, Domizia Orestano, Donglian Xu, Dongmei Xia, Dongyang Xue, Elena Naumova, Elisabeth Neuerburg, Elisa Percalli, Eric Baussan, Ezio Previtali, Fabio Mantovani, Fabrizio Petrucci, Fanrong Xu, Fanrui Zeng, Fatima Houria, Fausto Ortica, Fazhi Qi, Feipeng Ning, Fei Xiao, Feiyang Zhang, Fengfan Yang, Fengpeng An, Frederic Perrot, Frederic Yermia, George Parker, Gerard Claverie, Giuseppe Andronico, Guanda Gong, Guanghua Gong, Guofu Cao, Haifeng Yao, Hangchang Zhang, Han Zhang, Hao Cai, Haosen Zhang, Hechong Han, Hiroshi Nunokawa, Honghao Zhang, Honglin Zhuang, Hongzhao Yu, Igor Nemchenok, Iwan Morton-Blake, Jacques Wurtz, Jiaheng Zou, Jiawen Zhang, Jiaxuan Ye, Jiayang Xu, Jie Yang, Jie Zhang, Jie Zhao, Jilberto Zamora, Jilei Xu, Jilong Yin, Jingbo Zhang, Jinghuan Xu, Jingqin Xue, Jingsen Zhu, Joao Pedro Athayde Marcondes de Andre, Johann Martyn, Jose Busto, Juan Pedro Ochoa-Ricoux, Jun Cao, Junwei Zhang, Kaiwei Yang, Kangfu Zhu, Kejun Zhu, Lakshmi Murgod, Lei Yang, Lei Zhang, Liang Zhan, Lino Miramonti, Li Zhou, Lothar Oberauer, Luca Pelicci, Manuel Boehles, Marcel Buchner, Marco Beretta, Marco Grassi, Marta Colomer Molla, Massimiliano Nastasi, Mathieu Bongrand, Matteo Borghesi, Matthias Mayer, Maxim Gonchar, Maxim Gromov, Meihang Xu, Mei Ye, Mengyun Guan, Miao He, Michael Wurm, Michele Montuschi, Ming Qi, Minhao Gu, Nikita Balashov, Nikolay Anfimov, Noman Zafar, Nunzio Giudice, Nunzio Guardone, Oliver Pilarczyk, Pascal Poussot, Patrick Hellmuth, Peidong Yu, Pengfei Xiao, Pengfei Yang, Pietro Chimenti, Ping Zhang, Qingmin Zhang, Qiyu Yan, Rafael Herrera, Rainer Othegraven, Riccardo Brugnera, Riccardo Bruno, Rongping Zhang, Rosa Maria Guizzetti, Rossella Caruso, Runze Zhao, Sebastian Olivares, Sen Qian, Shan Zeng, Shaojing Hou, Shiqi Zhang, Shishen Xian, Shiwen Xu, Shuihan Zhang, Shujun Zhao, Shun Zhou, Simi Yu, Simon Blyth, Stefano M. Mari, Stephane Callier, Svetlana Biktemerova, Tao Zhang, Tatiana Antoshkina, Taylor Yan, Thilo Birkenfeld, Thomas Adam, Tianying Xiao, Tingxuan Zeng, Tobias Heinz, Vasily Gromov, Vidhya Thara Hariharan, Vitalii Zavadskyi, Vito Antonelli, Wanlei Guo, Wei He, Wei-Jun Xie, Weiqing Yin, Willy Perrin, Xiang Xiao, Xiangyi Mu, Xiang Zhou, Xiao Cai, Xiaochuan Xie, Xiaofei Gu, Xiaohao Yin, Xiaohui Qian, Xiaomei Zhang, Xiaoshan Jiang, Xiaoyu Yang, Xing Zhou, Xinhai He, Xiongbo Yan, Xuantong Zhang, Xuhui Yang, Xunjie Xu, Xu Zhang, Yang Han, Yangheng Zheng, Yaoqi Cao, Yatian Pei, Yibing Zhang, Yifei Pan, Yinhong Zhang, Yiyu Zhang, Yi-zhou Cai, Yongpeng Zhang, Yuanyuan Zhang, Yuduo Guan, Yuekun Heng, Yue Meng, YuenKeung Hor, Yu Gu, Yuguang Xie, Yujie Niu, Yumei Zhang, Yu Peng, Yuri Gornushkin, Zekun Yang, Zeyuan Yu, Zhaoxiang Wu, Zhaoyuan Peng, Zhengyun You, Zhe Ning, Zhicheng Zhang, Zhijian Zhang, Zhi Wu, Zhizhong Xing, Ziliang Chu, Ziping Ye, Ziqian Xiang.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: The 3” PMTs are positioned in the gaps of the 20” LPMTs. view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Cabling sketch of the photomultipliers with their front-end electronics underwater boxes. The 20- view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Illustration of the electronics coverage between neighboring central detector areas leading to a view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: SPMT electronic system schematic for 1 underwater box. 2 High Voltage Splitter boards power view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Scattered view of SPMT electronic system inside underwater box. 16 PMTs per connector make view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The High Voltage Splitter (HVS) board top side view. Glued to the right side of the board is view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Simplified circuit schematic for a 16-channel subgroup of the HVS board and the surrounding view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Average SPE waveform measured on the output of the HVS while using a PMT connected with a view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: ABC front-end readout board top side with main components. The 8 CATIROC ASICs are view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Global Control Unit board top side with main components, in particular the FPGA (Kintex-7). view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Sketch of the thermal management of the view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Picture of the electronics stack with the view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Scheme of the electronics links between the key components of the SPMT system. view at source ↗
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Pedestal RMS distribution of the 128 channels without (HV OFF, green) and with HV applied view at source ↗
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: Charge spectra of the 128 PMT channels. The arbitrary spectrum intensity is normalized for view at source ↗
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: Example of the charge from a 3-inch PMT after the full SPMT readout electronics. The Single view at source ↗
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Small PMT system hit acceptance for a 20-solar-mass CCSN. A hit is defined as a scintillation view at source ↗
read the original abstract

The Jiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory (JUNO) is a 20-kton liquid scintillator-based, low-radioactivity, multi-purpose neutrino detector located 693 meters (1800 m.w.e.) underground in the Guangdong province, China. To detect scintillation light produced in the target, the detector is equipped with 17,612 20-inch photomultipliers (PMTs), forming the Large PMT system (LPMT). In addition, 25,600 3-inch photomultipliers (the Small Photomultiplier System or SPMT) are deployed in the gaps between the LPMTs. This paper presents the design and performance of the underwater front-end electronics developed for the SPMT system. It details the individual electronics boards and their key components, the inter-board interfaces, the system-level design, and the firmware architecture that supports data acquisition and control. It also outlines mechanical and thermal integration, board validation procedures, and system performance metrics. The readout chain includes digitization of 128 PMT channels per unit, synchronized time-stamping, charge measurement, event packaging, and bandwidth management. Comprehensive validation confirms the system's readiness to meet JUNO's stringent physics goals. The underwater electronics achieve noise levels as low as 0.04 photoelectrons with minimal crosstalk (below 0.4%) and a bandwidth of 57 MB/s, ensuring reliable single photo-electron detection and operation under high-rate conditions. The SPMT system has now been fully integrated and installed in JUNO. Its commissioning and physics performance will be reported in a future publication.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 3 minor

Summary. The paper describes the design, components, firmware, mechanical integration, and laboratory validation of underwater front-end electronics for the 25,600 3-inch photomultipliers (SPMT system) in the JUNO detector. It reports a readout chain handling 128 channels per unit with synchronized timing, charge measurement, and data packaging, achieving noise levels as low as 0.04 photoelectrons, crosstalk below 0.4%, and a bandwidth of 57 MB/s. The system has been fully installed in JUNO, with commissioning and in-detector performance deferred to a future publication.

Significance. If the reported laboratory performance translates to operational conditions, this work provides an essential technical component for the JUNO SPMT system, which augments the large PMT array for improved energy resolution, vertex reconstruction, and background suppression in neutrino oscillation and astrophysics measurements. The explicit performance numbers, system-level architecture details, and completion of installation represent concrete engineering progress for large-scale, low-radioactivity underwater detectors.

major comments (1)
  1. Performance validation section: The central claim that the electronics achieve 0.04 pe noise, <0.4% crosstalk, and 57 MB/s bandwidth (ensuring reliable SPE detection and readiness for JUNO physics goals) is supported only by laboratory measurements. No error bars, full test conditions (temperature, pressure simulation, or radiation exposure matching the 693 m underground site), or quantitative table comparing results to JUNO requirements are provided, leaving the extrapolation to submerged, pressurized, low-temperature, low-radioactivity operation unverified.
minor comments (3)
  1. Abstract: The performance numbers (0.04 pe noise, <0.4% crosstalk, 57 MB/s) are stated without uncertainties or ranges, and the bandwidth figure lacks clarification on whether it applies per electronics unit or system-wide.
  2. Section on inter-board interfaces and firmware: The description of data acquisition, event packaging, and bandwidth management could include a block diagram or timing diagram to clarify synchronization across the 128 channels.
  3. Mechanical and thermal integration section: Quantitative details on heat dissipation and pressure tolerance under expected JUNO conditions would strengthen the integration claims.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 1 unresolved

We thank the referee for the careful reading and constructive feedback on our manuscript describing the underwater front-end electronics for the JUNO SPMT system. We address the major comment below and have revised the manuscript accordingly where possible.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: Performance validation section: The central claim that the electronics achieve 0.04 pe noise, <0.4% crosstalk, and 57 MB/s bandwidth (ensuring reliable SPE detection and readiness for JUNO physics goals) is supported only by laboratory measurements. No error bars, full test conditions (temperature, pressure simulation, or radiation exposure matching the 693 m underground site), or quantitative table comparing results to JUNO requirements are provided, leaving the extrapolation to submerged, pressurized, low-temperature, low-radioactivity operation unverified.

    Authors: We agree that additional details on the laboratory validation would strengthen the manuscript. In the revised version we will: (1) add error bars to the reported noise (0.04 pe) and crosstalk (<0.4%) values, (2) explicitly state the laboratory test conditions (room temperature, ambient pressure, no artificial radiation exposure), and (3) insert a table directly comparing the measured performance metrics against the JUNO SPMT requirements. These laboratory results were obtained on fully assembled boards prior to integration and were used to qualify the design for deployment. Full pressure, temperature, and radiation testing under operational conditions was performed during the integration and installation campaign at the JUNO site; however, the detailed in-detector performance data are reserved for a future commissioning paper as stated in the manuscript. The successful installation of all 25,600 channels provides supporting evidence that the electronics met the necessary integration criteria. revision: partial

standing simulated objections not resolved
  • Quantitative performance data under full submerged, pressurized, low-temperature, and low-radioactivity conditions at the 693 m underground site, which are part of the ongoing commissioning and will be presented in a dedicated future publication.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: empirical hardware measurements reported directly

full rationale

This engineering paper describes the design, firmware, mechanical integration, and lab validation of underwater front-end electronics for JUNO's 3-inch PMTs. Performance metrics such as 0.04 pe noise, <0.4% crosstalk, and 57 MB/s bandwidth are stated as outcomes of board validation procedures and direct measurements on the readout chain (digitization, time-stamping, charge measurement). No equations, derivations, or parameter fits are present that could reduce to self-definitions or fitted inputs by construction. Self-citations, if any, are not load-bearing for the central claims, which rest on independent hardware testing rather than tautological loops. The paper explicitly defers in-detector commissioning data to a future publication, avoiding any circular extrapolation within this work.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 0 invented entities

This is an engineering design and validation paper; no mathematical derivations, free parameters, axioms, or postulated physical entities are involved.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 6655 in / 1129 out tokens · 80306 ms · 2026-05-07T14:02:17.065121+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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Reference graph

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