Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions | Paper Citation Record

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This paper cites How well can LLMs negotiate? negotiationarena platform and analysis.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions How well can LLMs negotiate? negotiationarena platform and analysis

Reference 1

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This paper cites Cooperation, competition, and maliciousness: LLM-stakeholders interactive ne- gotiation.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Cooperation, competition, and maliciousness: LLM-stakeholders interactive ne- gotiation

Reference 2

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Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions scrolling screenshot

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Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Unresolved cited work

Reference 4

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This paper cites Evaluating behavioral alignment in conflict dialogue: A multi-dimensional comparison of LLM agents and humans.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Evaluating behavioral alignment in conflict dialogue: A multi-dimensional comparison of LLM agents and humans

Reference 5

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This paper cites The end of reward engineering: How llms are redefining multi- agent coordination.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions The end of reward engineering: How llms are redefining multi- agent coordination

Reference 6

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This paper cites What would an LLM do? evaluating policymaking capabilities of large language models.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions What would an LLM do? evaluating policymaking capabilities of large language models

Reference 7

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Observation 83dbc489-2bbb-4b1d-bee6-dfdda15bc07f · outbound

This paper cites From tools to partners: How large language models are transforming urban plan- ning.AI Open, 6:276–298.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions From tools to partners: How large language models are transforming urban plan- ning.AI Open, 6:276–298

Reference 8

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This paper cites Ai language models could both help and harm equity in marine policymak- ing.npj Ocean Sustainability, 4(1):32, Jun 2025.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Ai language models could both help and harm equity in marine policymak- ing.npj Ocean Sustainability, 4(1):32, Jun 2025

Reference 9

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This paper cites So, Yao-Yang Xu, Zhao-Feng Guo, Xinbing Wang, David W.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions So, Yao-Yang Xu, Zhao-Feng Guo, Xinbing Wang, David W

Reference 10

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This paper cites Royal Society Open Science11(6), 240255 (2024) https://doi.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Royal Society Open Science11(6), 240255 (2024) https://doi

Reference 11

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Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Unresolved cited work

Reference 12

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This paper cites Game of thoughts: Iterative reasoning in game-theoretic do- mains with large language models.AAMAS.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Game of thoughts: Iterative reasoning in game-theoretic do- mains with large language models.AAMAS

Reference 13

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This paper cites Strategic behavior of large language models and the role of game structure versus contextual framing.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Strategic behavior of large language models and the role of game structure versus contextual framing

Reference 14

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This paper cites Large language model reasoning failures.Transac- tions on Machine Learning Research.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Large language model reasoning failures.Transac- tions on Machine Learning Research

Reference 15

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This paper cites URL https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-025 -02172-y.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions URL https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-025 -02172-y

Reference 16

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This paper cites Demonstrating specification gaming in reasoning models.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Demonstrating specification gaming in reasoning models

Reference 17

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This paper cites TextArena.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions TextArena

Reference 18

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This paper cites The serial position effect of free recall.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions The serial position effect of free recall

Reference 19

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Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Unresolved cited work

Reference 20

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This paper cites Mistakes in games.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Mistakes in games

Reference 21

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This paper cites The chameleon board game.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions The chameleon board game

Reference 22

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This paper cites The Llama 3 Herd of Models.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions The Llama 3 Herd of Models

Reference 23

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This paper cites Qwen3 Technical Report.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Qwen3 Technical Report

Reference 24

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This paper cites gpt-oss-120b & gpt-oss-20b Model Card.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions gpt-oss-120b & gpt-oss-20b Model Card

Reference 25

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This paper cites URL https://openai.com/.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions URL https://openai.com/

Reference 26

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This paper cites Human strategic decision making in parametrized games.Mathematics, 10(7).

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Human strategic decision making in parametrized games.Mathematics, 10(7)

Reference 27

Resolution: verified exact; doi, observed 2026-05-09T20:17:04.583781Z

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Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Unresolved cited work

Reference 28

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This paper cites Do LLMs strategically reveal, conceal, and infer in- formation? a theoretical and empirical analysis in the chameleon game.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Do LLMs strategically reveal, conceal, and infer in- formation? a theoretical and empirical analysis in the chameleon game

Reference 29

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This paper cites Probing Classifiers: Promises, Shortcomings, and Advances.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Probing Classifiers: Promises, Shortcomings, and Advances

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This paper cites Information-Theoretic Probing with Minimum Description Length.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Information-Theoretic Probing with Minimum Description Length

Reference 31

Resolution: verified exact; doi, observed 2026-05-09T20:17:04.592674Z

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This paper cites Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics9, 160–175 (2021).

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics9, 160–175 (2021)

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This paper cites Finding neurons in a haystack: Case studies with sparse probing.Transactions on Machine Learning Research.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Finding neurons in a haystack: Case studies with sparse probing.Transactions on Machine Learning Research

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Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.889551Z

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This paper cites Layer by Layer: Uncovering Hidden Representations in Language Models.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Layer by Layer: Uncovering Hidden Representations in Language Models

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This paper cites Transformer feed-forward layers are key-value memories.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Transformer feed-forward layers are key-value memories

Reference 35

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Observation dd7aec4d-5706-4e86-84f8-a14f6fff311b · outbound

This paper cites Interpreting gpt: The logit lens.Blog Post.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Interpreting gpt: The logit lens.Blog Post

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This paper cites Gomez, Łukasz Kaiser, and Illia Polosukhin.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Gomez, Łukasz Kaiser, and Illia Polosukhin

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Observation 841bb9a2-b36d-48e7-aeb0-e026c60ea7a7 · outbound

This paper cites Improving language understand- ing by generative pre-training.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Improving language understand- ing by generative pre-training

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This paper cites The linear representation hypothesis and the geometry of large language models.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions The linear representation hypothesis and the geometry of large language models

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Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.945059Z

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Observation 094a056f-c2b3-4a3a-af19-bb172f936a7e · outbound

This paper cites Toy models of superposition.Trans- former Circuits Thread.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Toy models of superposition.Trans- former Circuits Thread

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Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.923970Z

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Observation aaad18d2-e46b-410e-a132-cf347bd29ba6 · outbound

This paper cites Locating and Editing Factual Associations in GPT.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Locating and Editing Factual Associations in GPT

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Resolution: verified exact; arxiv_id, observed 2026-05-16T09:58:57.694057Z

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Observation b0da7981-3778-4c9c-8dbb-f5454723dce0 · outbound

This paper cites Chi, Quoc V Le, and Denny Zhou.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Chi, Quoc V Le, and Denny Zhou

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Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.859742Z

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Observation 469bd07d-f8fd-4599-b7c5-f6fd652b6882 · outbound

This paper cites Chain-of-thought reasoning without prompting.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Chain-of-thought reasoning without prompting

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Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.920094Z

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Observation 60b23f1a-a79c-4dc9-872b-1bae0255557f · outbound

This paper cites Reasoning Language Models: A Blueprint, June 2025.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Reasoning Language Models: A Blueprint, June 2025

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Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.901819Z

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Observation 9bd773a3-df65-4c5f-9701-e29bb524bc99 · outbound

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Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Unresolved cited work

Reference 45

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Observation bfa2d5b6-029d-4b54-ac7c-ce0588d1be66 · outbound

This paper cites Training large language models to reason in a continu- ous latent space.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Training large language models to reason in a continu- ous latent space

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Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.893471Z

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Observation 0d1d75cb-fea3-4bc8-b5ee-6de3bb05a982 · outbound

This paper cites Reasoning beyond language: A comprehensive survey on latent chain-of-thought reasoning.arXiv preprint arXiv:2505.16782, 2025a.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Reasoning beyond language: A comprehensive survey on latent chain-of-thought reasoning.arXiv preprint arXiv:2505.16782, 2025a

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Observation 14b0d461-d53d-433e-851f-a3164c677b42 · outbound

This paper cites Ai–ai bias: Large language models favor communications gener- ated by large language models.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122(31):e2415697122.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Ai–ai bias: Large language models favor communications gener- ated by large language models.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122(31):e2415697122

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Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.916098Z

Source-reported events for the cited work

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Observation 9017d9ea-a511-4c9b-86b6-64de5bceded9 · outbound

This paper cites URL https: //www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2415 697122.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions URL https: //www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2415 697122

Reference 49

Resolution: verified exact; doi, observed 2026-05-09T20:17:04.586437Z

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Observation b035d011-0730-4ce1-8e07-c94d64e18037 · outbound

This paper cites The bias is in the details: An assessment of cognitive bias in llms.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions The bias is in the details: An assessment of cognitive bias in llms

Reference 50

Resolution: verified exact; arxiv_id, observed 2026-05-11T15:21:07.808274Z

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Observation 4c357019-4122-4a3a-85d2-0d1357a8a6a6 · outbound

This paper cites On the emergence of position bias in transformers.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions On the emergence of position bias in transformers

Reference 51

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.822475Z

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Observation 265cba4c-3b40-40bc-b1d7-23348fe0e8d6 · outbound

This paper cites findings-emnlp.695/.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions findings-emnlp.695/

Reference 52

Resolution: verified exact; doi, observed 2026-05-09T20:17:04.581379Z

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Observation 4a5cbba8-17ce-4c6c-b413-f44039c21463 · outbound

This paper cites an unresolved cited work.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Unresolved cited work

Reference 53

Resolution: unresolved; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.937783Z

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Observation 5cd3eaa7-a76b-4e0e-83aa-e616ff402150 · outbound

This paper cites The bayesian brain: the role of uncertainty in neural coding and com- putation.Trends Neurosci, 27(12):712–719, December 2004.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions The bayesian brain: the role of uncertainty in neural coding and com- putation.Trends Neurosci, 27(12):712–719, December 2004

Reference 54

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.962145Z

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Observation 515ee5f0-8be3-4d24-a5e5-b8d6806466f1 · outbound

This paper cites Action understanding as inverse planning.Cog- nition, 113(3):329–349, September 2009.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Action understanding as inverse planning.Cog- nition, 113(3):329–349, September 2009

Reference 55

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.879691Z

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Observation 934e8c88-aced-4648-bb72-c0cdeb97b8d0 · outbound

This paper cites MIT Press.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions MIT Press

Reference 56

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.857801Z

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Observation 1aac6a9a-9906-46b6-bdeb-da3782df774e · outbound

This paper cites Atkinson.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Atkinson

Reference 57

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.918868Z

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Observation d348d48b-9a02-47f9-bc08-16b80fe6d6a0 · outbound

This paper cites Inference-time in- tervention: Eliciting truthful answers from a lan- guage model.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Inference-time in- tervention: Eliciting truthful answers from a lan- guage model

Reference 58

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.912393Z

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Observation 7f956b93-d227-43e2-ab83-630fa362cfc7 · outbound

This paper cites The geometry of truth: Emergent linear structure in large language model representations of true/false datasets.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions The geometry of truth: Emergent linear structure in large language model representations of true/false datasets

Reference 59

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.884178Z

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Observation 5ff1ed16-fd8d-40a0-b877-725b19815de9 · outbound

This paper cites Towards inference-time category-wise safety steering for large language mod- els.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Towards inference-time category-wise safety steering for large language mod- els

Reference 60

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.844628Z

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Observation ecef09cf-8011-4807-8adc-a7995319280b · outbound

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Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Unresolved cited work

Reference 61

Resolution: unresolved; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.954428Z

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Observation 16084ea3-7a52-4a19-86b2-bf6543d7d635 · outbound

This paper cites Steering llms towards safer shores.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Steering llms towards safer shores

Reference 62

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.958081Z

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Observation 6a6bb37a-494f-460e-8b9a-ce9f3eb109c1 · outbound

This paper cites ISBN 978-981-95- 4409-7.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions ISBN 978-981-95- 4409-7

Reference 63

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.866571Z

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Observation 7b88ed08-8aba-45d6-a735-1e6382e1091e · outbound

This paper cites Emergence of linear truth encodings in language models.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Emergence of linear truth encodings in language models

Reference 64

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.878888Z

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Observation 4b627c11-38dd-4318-a257-a36f41de3ab0 · outbound

This paper cites Reducing sycophancy and improving honesty via activation steering.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Reducing sycophancy and improving honesty via activation steering

Reference 65

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.908841Z

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Observation 33c01c8c-b0b8-409c-bba2-f9555f22c230 · outbound

This paper cites Steering Language Models With Activation Engineering.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Steering Language Models With Activation Engineering

Reference 66

Resolution: verified exact; local_arxiv, observed 2026-05-11T15:21:07.745358Z

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Observation 6921245e-5d0f-4528-9b9f-66f95c35e1cb · outbound

This paper cites Eliciting latent knowl- edge from ”quirky” language models.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Eliciting latent knowl- edge from ”quirky” language models

Reference 67

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.949514Z

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Observation ec1be6a2-74bd-412f-b281-441c9d62b87e · outbound

This paper cites Is gpt-oss good? a comprehensive evaluation of openai’s latest open source models.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Is gpt-oss good? a comprehensive evaluation of openai’s latest open source models

Reference 68

Resolution: verified exact; arxiv_id, observed 2026-05-11T15:21:07.786352Z

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Observation 15490874-b607-4351-a8c2-dde9c972816d · outbound

This paper cites Kingma and Jimmy Ba.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Kingma and Jimmy Ba

Reference 69

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.908006Z

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Observation e9b7bc1d-a460-45b1-ab93-b08234ea8ec3 · outbound

This paper cites Prompting GPT-3 to be reliable.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Prompting GPT-3 to be reliable

Reference 70

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.892972Z

Source-reported events for the cited work

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Observation ebb69261-ef22-4804-9dfa-90f48b55723d · outbound

This paper cites Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing , year =.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing , year =

Reference 71

Resolution: verified exact; doi, observed 2026-05-09T20:17:04.594696Z

Source-reported events for the cited work

No event found in the named queried sources as of 2026-08-04T06:34:03.388597+00:00.

Observation db3f62ff-1131-43e7-bd1e-f02e3770cec7 · outbound

This paper cites COPEN: Probing conceptual knowledge in pre- trained language models.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions COPEN: Probing conceptual knowledge in pre- trained language models

Reference 72

Resolution: verified exact; doi, observed 2026-05-09T20:17:04.603217Z

Source-reported events for the cited work

No event found in the named queried sources as of 2026-08-04T06:34:03.388597+00:00.

Observation fbf250c7-8e41-44d0-af14-f92208244294 · outbound

This paper cites Observer, not player: Simulating theory of mind in large language models through game observation.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions Observer, not player: Simulating theory of mind in large language models through game observation

Reference 73

Resolution: verified fuzzy; raw_fallback, observed 2026-05-24T13:56:13.852472Z

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No event found in the named queried sources as of 2026-08-04T06:34:03.388597+00:00.

Observation 0536f58a-ef25-41cf-8f71-68ba0d5cfa1f · outbound

This paper cites A” or “B.

Why Do LLMs Struggle in Strategic Play? Broken Links Between Observations, Beliefs, and Actions A” or “B

Reference 74

Resolution: verified exact; doi, observed 2026-05-09T20:17:04.605217Z

Source-reported events for the cited work

No event found in the named queried sources as of 2026-08-04T06:34:03.388597+00:00.

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