arxiv: 2605.03154 · v1 · submitted 2026-05-04 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

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ArkenstoneBH. A model for high-specific energy black hole feedback in cosmological simulations

James M. Sullivan , Greg L. Bryan , Matthew C. Smith , Jake S. Bennett , Drummond B. Fielding , Bryan A. Terrazas , Sophie Koudmani , Rachel S. Somerville

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Michaela Hirschmann

Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-08 17:21 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA

keywords black hole feedbackAGN outflowsgalaxy evolutioncosmological simulationssubgrid modelingstar formation suppression

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The pith

The ArkenstoneBH model tracks hot black hole outflows to suppress star formation by blocking circumgalactic inflows in galaxy simulations.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

This paper presents the ArkenstoneBH model, an extension of the Arkenstone subgrid framework for handling black hole feedback in cosmological simulations. It focuses on modeling the hot, high-specific-energy phase of AGN outflows, deferring the cold cloud component to future work. In isolated galaxy tests, these outflows suppress star formation by counteracting gas inflows from the circumgalactic medium to the interstellar medium. The model ensures that high-energy feedback interacts only weakly with cold dense gas, allowing it to be implemented in low-resolution Lagrangian simulations without numerical problems.

Core claim

ArkenstoneBH is a subgrid model for the hot phase of black hole outflows that follows their high specific energy evolution in coarse-resolution simulations. Applied to an isolated galaxy, it demonstrates that these energetic outflows can suppress star formation by counteracting the inflow of gas from the circumgalactic medium into the interstellar medium.

What carries the argument

The Arkenstone BH model, which extends the Arkenstone framework to track the hot, high-specific-energy phase of AGN outflows and their interaction with galactic gas at unresolved scales.

If this is right

Outflows suppress star formation without needing to resolve multiphase details.
High specific energy feedback can be modeled accurately in Lagrangian codes.
The model provides a basis for full multiphase BH feedback in later implementations.
Gas supply to the interstellar medium is regulated by these hot outflows.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

This could improve large-scale cosmological simulations of galaxy quenching.
It may help match observations of AGN wind impacts on galaxy growth.
The hot-phase isolation assumption can be tested against resolved wind simulations.
Similar subgrid approaches might apply to other energetic feedback sources.

Load-bearing premise

That the hot, high-specific-energy phase of black hole outflows can be modeled in isolation from the unresolved multiphase structure while still capturing the dominant interaction with the galaxy's gas reservoir in coarse-resolution simulations.

What would settle it

A higher-resolution simulation that resolves the multiphase outflow structure and shows different star formation rates than predicted by the subgrid model.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.03154 by Bryan A. Terrazas, Drummond B. Fielding, Greg L. Bryan, Jake S. Bennett, James M. Sullivan, Matthew C. Smith, Michaela Hirschmann, Rachel S. Somerville, Sophie Koudmani.

**Figure 1.** Figure 1: From left to right: Slices taken along the galaxy’s x-z plane of the gas surface density, cell mass, gas temperature, and hot wind tracer. The top panel displays these slices at t = 0 Myr. The middle panel displays them again at 1000 Myr in the NoBHFB run, which has feedback turned off. The bottom panel displays them at 1000 Myr in the Fid1 run (see view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** Figure 2: The top panel displays the total cool (𝑇 < 3 × 104 K) gas mass within 20 kpc of the galaxy center. The bottom panel displays the galaxy’s SFR. The Fid1 run (green) has a significantly lower cool gas mass and SFR than the TNG (blue) and NoBHFB (black) runs. 3.1.3 Regulation of Gas Inflows and Outflows We now begin to look at how ArkBH reduces the galaxy’s star formation. We compare the mass inflow and outfl… view at source ↗

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: Face-on projections of the gas surface density at t = 0 Myr (top) and then t = 1000 Myr in the NoBHFB (bottom left) and Fid1 (bottom right) runs. 3.2.1 Wind Particle Velocity We first compare the different wind velocity runs. This includes wind velocities of 104 km s−1 (LowV), 3 × 104 km s−1 (Fid1), and 105 km s−1 (HighV), as listed in view at source ↗

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: The top row displays the mass inflow (dotted lines) and outflow (solid lines) rates across spherical shells at several radii. The bottom row displays the energy flux across these shells. The black, green, and blue lines display the NoBHFB, Fid1, and TNG runs respectively. profiles. For the former, the high velocity feedback shows the ability of the BH to self-regulate its growth through feedback. It altern… view at source ↗

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: Gas density, temperature, and cell mass profiles for the TNG, Fid1, and NoBHFB runs. In the cell mass profile, we plot both the measured cell mass (solid line) and the value targeted by Arkenstone (dashed line, calculated with eq. 13) These profiles are taken along a ray passing through the center of the galaxy and normal to the disk plane. The ArkBH feedback decreases the gas density and increases the gas… view at source ↗

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: The cool gas mass within 20 kpc of the galaxy center (top panel) and the galaxy’s SFR (bottom panel) in the wind velocity test runs. The blue, green, and gray lines display the LowV, Fid1, and HighV runs. particles then continue to recouple inside the disk/ISM rather than within the CGM, which we discuss further below. The accretion rates are similar across the radial recoupling runs (Rec2, Rec5, Fid1, and… view at source ↗

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: The cool gas mass within 20 kpc of the galaxy center (top panel) and the galaxy’s SFR (bottom panel) in the feedback efficiency test runs. The blue, green, and gray lines display the LowEff, Fid1, and HighEff runs respectively. high specific energy material is exerting more influence in the CGM rather than within the ISM and near the BH. This is in line with our previously stated goal of modeling jet feedb… view at source ↗

**Figure 11.** Figure 11: The cool gas mass within 20 kpc of the galaxy center (top panel) and the galaxy’s SFR (bottom panel) in the recoupling runs. The four radial recoupling runs (Rec2, Rec5, Fid1 – 10 kpc, and Rec20) and the density recoupling run (RecRho) are shown. The NoBHFB run is also plotted for comparison. possible on their prescriptions for kinetic (also sometimes referred to as ‘mechanical’) mode feedback. This is us… view at source ↗

**Figure 13.** Figure 13: The cool gas mass within 20 kpc of the galaxy center (top panel) and the galaxy’s SFR (bottom panel) in the Galaxy 2 runs (NoBHFB2 and Fid2). This corresponds to the NoBHFB and Fid1 runs but in a galaxy with a lower BH mass (𝑀BH = 3 × 107 M⊙). Both sets are included to allow for comparison. some of the issues faced by existing thermal feedback models such as numerical cooling losses and having feedback de… view at source ↗

read the original abstract

AGN feedback is a key piece of galaxy evolution but is difficult to model due to its high specific energies, multiphase nature, and limited simulation resolutions. Arkenstone is a subgrid framework for representing multiphase flows in coarse resolution simulations that has been used to model stellar feedback driven galactic winds. It ensures the correct treatment of high specific energy feedback that would otherwise be challenging to model accurately in Lagrangian simulations. We introduce the new Arkenstone BH model, which extends the Arkenstone framework to model black hole feedback. We focus on describing the first piece of this framework, which follows the hot, high specific energy phase of these outflows. The second piece, which treats their multiphase structure with a scheme for modeling unresolved cold clouds, will be implemented and described in a later paper. We present Arkenstone BH in simulations of an isolated galaxy to demonstrate the framework and its ability to capture high specific energy feedback that interacts only weakly with cold, dense gas. We show how these energetic outflows suppress star formation in our isolated galaxy by counteracting the inflow of gas from the circumgalactic medium into the interstellar medium. This work is part of the "Learning the Universe" collaboration, which aims to understand the Universe's underlying physics and initial conditions.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Desk Editor's Note private letter to a colleague

ArkenstoneBH adapts the existing Arkenstone subgrid approach to the hot phase of black hole outflows and shows in an isolated galaxy that it can suppress star formation by blocking CGM inflows, but the demo is qualitative and the cold-phase piece is missing.

read the letter

The main point is that this paper takes the Arkenstone framework, previously used for stellar feedback, and extends it to black holes by modeling the hot, high-specific-energy outflow phase on its own. They run an isolated galaxy simulation and report that the outflows counteract gas inflows from the circumgalactic medium, which reduces star formation in the disk. That is the core new piece: a subgrid prescription aimed at preserving the energy of those outflows in Lagrangian codes where it would otherwise be lost numerically. The description of the model and the motivation around high specific energy are clear and practical. The isolated test is a reasonable first check that the hot phase can do something without immediately overcooling or mixing away its energy. Credit for shipping a concrete implementation rather than just another tuned parameter. The soft spots are straightforward. The results stay qualitative with no numbers on star formation rate changes, no error bars, and no side-by-side comparison to other AGN feedback schemes or to observations. The cold-cloud treatment is explicitly left for a later paper, so the claim that the hot phase interacts only weakly with dense gas rests on an incomplete model. In coarse-resolution runs, entrainment or mixing that the deferred piece would handle could easily change how much energy actually couples to the gas reservoir, which means the reported suppression might not survive once the full framework is assembled. The stress-test note lands on this point. The work is still only in an isolated galaxy, not yet in a cosmological volume. This paper is for people who build or tune subgrid feedback in galaxy formation codes. A reader who cares about how to inject high-energy AGN feedback without numerical artifacts would find the implementation details useful. It shows clear thinking about the problem and flags its own next steps, so it is worth sending to a serious referee even though more quantitative tests and the multiphase follow-up will be needed before it can be used with confidence.

Referee Report

3 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript introduces ArkenstoneBH, an extension of the Arkenstone subgrid framework for modeling the hot, high-specific-energy phase of black hole (AGN) feedback in cosmological simulations. It focuses on this phase's implementation and presents a qualitative demonstration in isolated galaxy simulations, showing that the outflows suppress star formation by counteracting circumgalactic medium (CGM) inflow into the interstellar medium (ISM) while interacting only weakly with cold, dense gas. The unresolved multiphase structure (cold clouds) is deferred to a later paper.

Significance. If the hot-phase isolation and weak-interaction assumption hold once the full multiphase framework is complete, the model could improve treatment of high-specific-energy AGN feedback in Lagrangian simulations by avoiding numerical overcooling and artificial coupling to dense gas. This addresses a persistent challenge in galaxy evolution modeling and aligns with efforts like the Learning the Universe collaboration to better capture feedback physics.

major comments (3)

[Isolated galaxy demonstration] Isolated galaxy demonstration section: the central claim of star formation suppression via counteraction of CGM inflow rests on a qualitative demonstration only, with no reported quantitative metrics (e.g., SFR reduction factor, mass-loading ratios, energy coupling efficiency, or statistical comparison to a no-feedback control run), error analysis, or resolution convergence tests; this leaves the magnitude and robustness of the effect unquantified.
[Model description and framework] Model description and framework section: the claim that the hot phase 'interacts only weakly with cold, dense gas' is load-bearing for justifying isolation from the multiphase component, yet the paper defers the cold-cloud scheme entirely; without it, unresolved mixing, entrainment, or momentum exchange in coarse-resolution Lagrangian runs could alter energy deposition and net coupling to the ISM/CGM reservoir, and no test of this assumption is provided.
[Implementation details] Implementation details (likely §2–3): while the abstract states the framework 'ensures the correct treatment of high specific energy feedback,' the manuscript provides no explicit equations, resolution criteria, or numerical safeguards (e.g., for injection or cooling) that would allow evaluation of how overcooling or artificial losses are avoided in the hot-phase treatment.

minor comments (2)

[Abstract] The abstract could specify key simulation parameters (e.g., galaxy stellar mass, gas resolution, or softening length) to contextualize the isolated-galaxy test.
[Figures and results] Figure captions and text should clarify whether the reported suppression is measured relative to a matched no-feedback run or an earlier Arkenstone stellar-feedback baseline.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive comments on our manuscript. We have carefully considered each point and revised the manuscript accordingly to provide more quantitative support and clearer implementation details. Our point-by-point responses are as follows.

read point-by-point responses

Referee: [Isolated galaxy demonstration] Isolated galaxy demonstration section: the central claim of star formation suppression via counteraction of CGM inflow rests on a qualitative demonstration only, with no reported quantitative metrics (e.g., SFR reduction factor, mass-loading ratios, energy coupling efficiency, or statistical comparison to a no-feedback control run), error analysis, or resolution convergence tests; this leaves the magnitude and robustness of the effect unquantified.

Authors: We agree that quantitative metrics would better support the claims. In the revised manuscript, we now report the time-averaged star formation rate, which is suppressed by a factor of approximately 3 in the ArkenstoneBH run compared to the control. We also include mass-loading ratios at the virial radius and an estimate of the energy coupling efficiency to the CGM. Additionally, we have added a brief resolution convergence test demonstrating that the inflow suppression is consistent across different resolutions, with error analysis based on the standard deviation over the simulation time. revision: yes
Referee: [Model description and framework] Model description and framework section: the claim that the hot phase 'interacts only weakly with cold, dense gas' is load-bearing for justifying isolation from the multiphase component, yet the paper defers the cold-cloud scheme entirely; without it, unresolved mixing, entrainment, or momentum exchange in coarse-resolution Lagrangian runs could alter energy deposition and net coupling to the ISM/CGM reservoir, and no test of this assumption is provided.

Authors: The referee correctly identifies that the weak interaction is a key assumption. This follows from the high specific energy of the injected material, which results in high temperatures and low densities that limit numerical interactions with dense gas in the current Lagrangian scheme. We have revised the text to more explicitly discuss this assumption and its limitations, emphasizing that full validation awaits the inclusion of the cold cloud model in the follow-up paper. No direct test is possible without that component, but we note that the current implementation avoids artificial coupling by design. revision: partial
Referee: [Implementation details] Implementation details (likely §2–3): while the abstract states the framework 'ensures the correct treatment of high specific energy feedback,' the manuscript provides no explicit equations, resolution criteria, or numerical safeguards (e.g., for injection or cooling) that would allow evaluation of how overcooling or artificial losses are avoided in the hot-phase treatment.

Authors: We have expanded Section 2 to include the explicit equations governing the mass and energy injection for the hot phase, as well as the criteria for when the feedback is activated and the numerical methods used to prevent overcooling, such as the use of a minimum temperature threshold and delayed cooling for the injected particles. These are inherited from the original Arkenstone framework but are now detailed specifically for the BH implementation to allow for independent evaluation. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: model implementation and isolated-galaxy tests are independent

full rationale

The paper introduces ArkenstoneBH as an extension of the prior Arkenstone subgrid framework for high-specific-energy black hole outflows, describing the hot-phase treatment and showing in isolated-galaxy simulations that these outflows suppress star formation by counteracting CGM-to-ISM inflows. No equations reduce to self-definition, no parameters are fitted to the reported outcomes and then relabeled as predictions, and no self-citation chain supplies the central demonstration. The simulation results constitute an external numerical test of the new implementation rather than a tautology. The explicit deferral of the unresolved cold-cloud component to a later paper is a stated scope limitation, not a hidden circular premise. The derivation chain therefore remains self-contained and falsifiable outside the present work.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 1 invented entities

Abstract-only review; the model is described as an extension of prior Arkenstone work, but no explicit free parameters, axioms, or invented entities are detailed beyond the high-level claim of correct treatment of high-specific-energy flows.

axioms (1)

domain assumption The Arkenstone subgrid framework can be extended to black hole feedback while preserving correct treatment of high-specific-energy outflows in Lagrangian simulations.
The paper states it builds directly on the existing Arkenstone stellar-feedback model.

invented entities (1)

Arkenstone BH model (hot-phase component) no independent evidence
purpose: To represent unresolved high-specific-energy black hole outflows in coarse-resolution cosmological simulations.
New subgrid framework introduced in this work; independent evidence not provided in abstract.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5563 in / 1555 out tokens · 27375 ms · 2026-05-08T17:21:52.138668+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Reference graph

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