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arxiv: 2606.17676 · v1 · pith:RA3BLNCAnew · submitted 2026-06-16 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Galaxy groups within voids

M. Argudo-Fern\'andez , G. Torres-R\'ios , P. V\'asquez-Bustos , S. Verley , I. P\'erez , S. Duarte Puertas , A. Jim\'enez , R. Garc\'ia-Benito
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A. Zurita M. Alc\'azar-Laynez B. Bidaran A. Conrado D. Espada E. Florido R. Gonz\'alez Delgado M. Hern\'andez-S\'anchez I. del Moral-Castro J. Rom\'an L. S\'anchez-Menguiano S. Subramanian P. Villalba-Gonz\'alez
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Pith reviewed 2026-06-27 00:18 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords galaxy groupscosmic voidslarge-scale structuregalaxy evolutionfriends-of-friends algorithmlocal universevoid galaxies
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The pith

Galaxy groups in voids are typically small and loose, pointing to an early stage of evolution.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper applies a friends-of-friends algorithm to a sample of local void galaxies drawn from the CAVITY survey parent sample. It constructs a catalogue of 1367 groups containing 3040 galaxies and shows that 59 percent of void galaxies are isolated singlets, in contrast to a control sample where 60 percent of galaxies reside in groups. The identified void groups reach a maximum richness of six galaxies, and their measured harmonic radii, velocity dispersions, crossing times, and virial masses indicate loose, dynamically young systems. Group richness shows no dependence on void density. These results describe how galaxy assembly proceeds in the lowest-density regions of the local universe.

Core claim

Galaxy groups within voids are typically loose groups in an early stage of their evolution. The groups are identified with a friends-of-friends algorithm that enforces gravitational binding, and the densest such groups contain only six galaxies. Parameters such as harmonic radius, radial velocity dispersion, dimensionless crossing time, virial mass, and mass-to-light ratio are used to establish that the systems have not yet reached virial equilibrium, unlike groups found in denser environments.

What carries the argument

Friends-of-friends group finder algorithm applied to void galaxies, together with the dynamical indicators harmonic radius, radial velocity dispersion, dimensionless crossing time, virial mass, and mass-to-light ratio used to assess evolutionary stage.

If this is right

  • Galaxy groups exist inside voids of every density, with no correlation between group richness and void density.
  • The great majority of galaxies inside voids remain isolated singlets rather than members of groups.
  • The richest groups found in voids contain only six galaxies, far smaller than groups in filaments, walls, or clusters.
  • Void groups display larger harmonic radii and longer crossing times than groups outside voids, consistent with an early evolutionary stage.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The scarcity of groups and their loose character may indicate that gravitational collapse and merging proceed more slowly inside voids than in the rest of the cosmic web.
  • Void groups could provide clean observational targets for studying the initial phases of group assembly with minimal subsequent environmental processing.
  • The same selection method could be applied to higher-redshift void samples to test whether the preference for small, young groups persists across cosmic time.

Load-bearing premise

The friends-of-friends linking criteria, calibrated on the void sample, correctly identify physically bound groups rather than chance projections in these low-density regions.

What would settle it

Finding even one group with seven or more galaxies inside a void, or measuring crossing times for the identified groups that match those of virialized groups in denser regions, would falsify the claim that void groups are characteristically small and dynamically young.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.17676 by A. Conrado, A. Jim\'enez, A. Zurita, B. Bidaran, D. Espada, E. Florido, G. Torres-R\'ios, I. del Moral-Castro, I. P\'erez, J. Rom\'an, L. S\'anchez-Menguiano, M. Alc\'azar-Laynez, M. Argudo-Fern\'andez, M. Hern\'andez-S\'anchez, P. V\'asquez-Bustos, P. Villalba-Gonz\'alez, R. Garc\'ia-Benito, R. Gonz\'alez Delgado, S. Duarte Puertas, S. Subramanian, S. Verley.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Left panel: Redshift distribution of the groups, as blue dashed and cyan dotted open histograms, for the full (14672 singlets and 1367 groups) and limited (1013 singlets and 395 groups) sample, respectively, in comparison to the distribution of the redshift of the voids (gray filled histogram). Right panel: redshift of the group as a function of the group richness. The redshift distribution for groups with… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: ). The right panel of Fig [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Distribution of the projected distance (upper panel), in kpc, and line-of sight velocity difference (lower panel), in km s−1 , of group mem￾bers with respect to the central galaxy of the group (full sample), for groups with Ngal ≥ 2. The vertical black dashed lines indicate the limit values used to define the physically bound groups in the first iteration, following Argudo-Fernández et al. (2015). to ident… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Properties of the voids as a function of the group richness: number of galaxies in the voids (void richness, top left panel); size of the voids (Rvoid, top right panel); the number density of galaxies in each void (ρN, bottom left panel); and the over-density-corrected number density (log10(1 + δ), bottom right panel). The distribution of void properties for groups with same group richness is represented b… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Distribution of the dynamical parameters for the 1397 galaxy groups in the full sample. From left to right: effective radius of the groups, as log RH; observed velocity dispersion, as logσ; dimensionless crossing time, as log (H0tc); and group virial mass, as log Mvir in solar units. The black dashed line in the distribution of the observed velocity dispersion delimits the groups with σ 2 < 10 km s−1 , and… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Dynamical parameters of the galaxy groups with more than one member as a function of the group richness. The effective radius of the groups, as log RH is shown in the left panel, while the dimensionless crossing time, as log (H0tc) is shown in the right panel. The observed velocity dispersion and group virial mass are not shown since their correlation with richness is expected, by definition (presented in … view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Distribution of the mass-to-light ratio of the groups in the full sample with Ngal ≥ 2. Only groups with log (Mvir/M⊙) > 9 are con￾sidered in the analysis. The distribution for the control sample of NCNV groups is presented as green dotted open histogram. within the groups, however, unlike in compact groups (median H0tc = 0.016), crossing times values in the void groups are much larger (median H0tc = 0.66 … view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Group mass-to-light ratio (top panel), mass-richness ratio (mid￾dle panel), and luminosity-richness ratio (bottom panel) as functions of group richness. The distribution of these parameters for groups with same group richness is represented by violin plots (grey dashed-lines distributions considering the full sample, and grey dotted-lines distribu￾tions for the limited sample). Different virial group masse… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: 3D visualisation of the spatial distribution of galaxies within two voids in the CAVITY sample (Void 941 and Void 622, in the left and right panels, respectively) as an example of the distribution of groups within voids of similar size (Rvoid ∼ 13 h−1 Mpc) but different number of galaxies (53 and 154 void galaxies, respectively). Void galaxies (black dots) act as tracers of the substructure of the voids. … view at source ↗
read the original abstract

In this work, we aim to identify and characterise a sample of galaxy groups within voids in the local Universe (z\,<\,0.08), taking into account the peculiarities of these vast and empty structures. The void galaxies used in this study are selected from a well-defined void galaxy sample, from which the parent sample of the Calar Alto Void Integral-field Treasury surveY (CAVITY) legacy project was drawn. To identify galaxy groups, we applied a fiends-of-friends (FoF) like group finder algorithm to the selected sample, ensuring a certain degree of gravitational binding among group members. The same algorithm has been applied to identify a control sample of groups not in clusters nor voids, referred as NCNV groups. The catalogue of groups consists on 1367 physically bound groups, with a total of 3040 galaxies, plus 14672 galaxy singlets. Most of the galaxies in voids are singlets (59\%), in contrast, most of the NCNV galaxies in the control sample are in groups (60\%). To consider the dynamical stage of the groups we used the parameters harmonic radius ($\rm R_H$), radial velocity dispersion ($\rm \sigma_{v_r}^2$), dimensionless crossing time ($\rm H_0 t_c$), and group virial mass ($\rm M_{vir}$). We also used the total optical ($r$-band) luminosity, L$_r$, to estimate the mass-to-light ratio ($\rm M/L$) of the groups. We studied the relations of void properties and these parameters with the group richness. Galaxy groups can be found in any void in the local Universe, with no dependency of group richness on the density of voids. The densest groups in the studied sample of voids are composed of six galaxies, therefore, voids generally contain small groups, in comparison to denser structures such as filaments, walls, and galaxy clusters. Galaxy groups within voids are typically loose groups, in an early stage of their evolution.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper applies a friends-of-friends (FoF) algorithm to a sample of void galaxies drawn from the CAVITY survey parent catalog at z<0.08 to identify 1367 galaxy groups containing 3040 galaxies (plus 14672 singlets). It constructs a control sample of NCNV groups and uses dynamical parameters (harmonic radius R_H, radial velocity dispersion σ_vr, dimensionless crossing time H0 t_c, virial mass M_vir) together with r-band luminosity to derive mass-to-light ratios. The main results are that most void galaxies are singlets (59%), void groups are small (maximum richness 6), show no richness dependence on void density, and are typically loose with short crossing times, indicating an early evolutionary stage.

Significance. If the group catalog is robust, the work supplies a statistically useful sample of groups in underdense environments and a direct contrast with the NCNV control sample, which could constrain models of group assembly and galaxy evolution as a function of large-scale density.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract (paragraph on FoF application): the claim that the 1367 groups are 'physically bound' and that the reported trends in R_H, σ_vr, H0 t_c, M_vir and M/L demonstrate an 'early stage of evolution' is load-bearing, yet the manuscript provides no validation that the FoF linking lengths (tuned on the void sample) recover bound systems rather than projections in the low-density void regime; no mock-catalog tests, no comparison to independent mass estimators, and no assessment of interloper fraction are described.
  2. [Abstract] Abstract (counts and trends paragraph): no uncertainties or error bars are attached to the reported fractions (59% singlets, 60% grouped in NCNV), the richness distribution, or the dynamical-parameter trends with richness; without these the statistical significance of the void-versus-NCNV contrast cannot be evaluated.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: 'fiends-of-friends' is a typographical error for 'friends-of-friends'.
  2. [Abstract] Abstract: 'The catalogue of groups consists on 1367' should read 'consists of 1367'.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 1 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive comments. We address each major comment below.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract (paragraph on FoF application): the claim that the 1367 groups are 'physically bound' and that the reported trends in R_H, σ_vr, H0 t_c, M_vir and M/L demonstrate an 'early stage of evolution' is load-bearing, yet the manuscript provides no validation that the FoF linking lengths (tuned on the void sample) recover bound systems rather than projections in the low-density void regime; no mock-catalog tests, no comparison to independent mass estimators, and no assessment of interloper fraction are described.

    Authors: We agree the manuscript does not contain mock-catalog tests or explicit interloper assessments. The FoF implementation uses standard linking lengths in both projected separation and velocity difference, selected to identify systems with a degree of gravitational association as stated in the methods. The early-evolution inference rests on the observed short crossing times and loose configurations. In revision we will add an expanded methods discussion of the linking-length choice, note the lack of mock validation as a limitation, and moderate the abstract wording from 'physically bound groups' to 'identified groups'. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract (counts and trends paragraph): no uncertainties or error bars are attached to the reported fractions (59% singlets, 60% grouped in NCNV), the richness distribution, or the dynamical-parameter trends with richness; without these the statistical significance of the void-versus-NCNV contrast cannot be evaluated.

    Authors: We agree that uncertainties are required to evaluate significance. The revised manuscript will attach Poisson or bootstrap uncertainties to the singlet/group fractions, the richness distribution, and the trends of dynamical parameters with richness. revision: yes

standing simulated objections not resolved
  • Performing dedicated mock-catalog tests to validate the FoF groups in void environments and assess interloper fractions.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; results are direct empirical counts and measurements from algorithm application

full rationale

The paper applies a friends-of-friends algorithm to the input void galaxy catalog to identify 1367 groups, then computes dynamical parameters (R_H, sigma_vr, H0 t_c, M_vir, M/L) directly from those groups and reports trends with richness. No equations, fitted parameters, or self-referential definitions are presented that would make any claim equivalent to its inputs by construction. The derivation chain consists of catalog processing followed by straightforward measurement; conclusions do not reduce to prior fits or self-citations. This matches the default expectation of a non-circular observational study.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on the assumption that the selected void sample is representative and that the FoF algorithm returns physically bound groups; no free parameters, axioms, or invented entities are stated in the abstract.

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