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arxiv: 2606.18585 · v1 · pith:B4VCG5HQnew · submitted 2026-06-17 · 🌌 astro-ph.HE · astro-ph.SR

SN 2024dy: Dust formation in a long-lived Type IIn supernova and constraints on the dust mass

Sota Goto , Masayuki Yamanaka , Koji S. Kawabata , Masaomi Tanaka , Avinash Singh , Devendra K. Sahu , Tatsuya Nakaoka , Anjasha Gangopadhyay
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Takahiro Nagayama Naveen Dukiya Monalisa Dubey Kuntal Misra Bhavya Ailawadhi
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Pith reviewed 2026-06-26 20:19 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.HE astro-ph.SR
keywords Type IIn supernovadust formationSN 2024dyNIR excessHα asymmetrycarbon dustsupernova photometrycircumstellar interaction
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The pith

SN 2024dy observations indicate newly formed carbon dust of about 10^{-5} solar masses via NIR excess and red-wing suppression in Hα.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper presents 500 days of ultraviolet, optical, and near-infrared data on the long-lived Type IIn supernova SN 2024dy, which reached a peak of M_r = -19.2 mag and radiated a total energy of 1.9 × 10^{50} erg. Late-time photometry reveals a near-infrared excess that spectral energy distribution modeling fits with carbon dust grains at 1300–1800 K and a mass of roughly 10^{-5} solar masses. The Hα emission line develops a pronounced asymmetry with strong suppression of the red wing, taken as direct evidence that the dust is newly formed rather than pre-existing. The authors note that optical-depth effects may cause the derived dust mass to be an underestimate and position the event as a useful addition to the small set of well-observed dust-producing Type IIn supernovae.

Core claim

SN 2024dy exhibits a NIR excess at late phases that is modeled as carbon dust with temperatures of 1300-1800 K and masses of about 10^{-5} M_⊙. The late time Hα profile shows strong suppression of the red wing, providing evidence for newly formed dust. The results indicate that the derived dust mass may be underestimated due to optical depth effects.

What carries the argument

Spectral energy distribution modeling of the NIR excess combined with the asymmetric late-time Hα line profile.

If this is right

  • Long-lived Type IIn supernovae can form detectable carbon dust at late times through interaction with dense circumstellar material.
  • The reported dust mass of 10^{-5} M_⊙ constitutes a lower limit when optical-depth effects are taken into account.
  • Dust formation in such events contributes to the total dust budget from core-collapse supernovae.
  • The combination of NIR excess and Hα asymmetry can serve as a diagnostic for ongoing dust production in interacting supernovae.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If optical-depth corrections raise the dust mass, these events could supply a larger fraction of interstellar dust than currently modeled.
  • Repeated late-time spectroscopy of other bright Type IIn supernovae may show the same Hα asymmetry as a common signature.
  • Mid-infrared follow-up observations could directly measure the total dust mass and test the temperature range derived from NIR data alone.
  • The high radiated energy and sustained interaction imply that the circumstellar environment around the progenitor was unusually dense, favoring dust condensation.

Load-bearing premise

The NIR excess and H-alpha asymmetry are produced by newly formed dust rather than pre-existing circumstellar dust, free-free emission, or other continuum sources, and that the simple SED model accurately recovers the dust mass despite possible optical-depth effects.

What would settle it

Mid-infrared photometry showing no corresponding thermal emission or spectra lacking the red-wing suppression in Hα at epochs when the NIR excess is present would falsify the new-dust interpretation.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.18585 by Anjasha Gangopadhyay, Avinash Singh, Bhavya Ailawadhi, Devendra K. Sahu, Koji S. Kawabata, Kuntal Misra, Masaomi Tanaka, Masayuki Yamanaka, Monalisa Dubey, Naveen Dukiya, Sota Goto, Takahiro Nagayama, Tatsuya Nakaoka.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Multi-band light curves of SN 2024dy. Each band is shifted in magnitude to distinguish them. The black lines at the top of this panel present the spectroscopic epoch. The gray line denotes the estimated explosion date (MJD 60309.2, defined in Section 2.1). we model the early-time o-band light curve using a t 2 prescription given by F = Fmax 1 −  t − tmax ∆t 2 ! . (1) Here, Fmax is the peak luminosity, tm… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: compares the r-band light curve of SN 2024dy with the optical (r and o-bands) light curves of sev￾eral well-observed, luminous, long-lived Type IIn SNe, selected based on the long timescales. The compar￾ison sample includes SN 2010jl (C. Fransson et al. 2014), SN 2015da (L. Tartaglia et al. 2020), SN 2017hcc (S. Moran et al. 2023), SN 2021adxl (S. J. Brennan et al. 2024), and SN 2021irp (T. M. Reynolds et … view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Temporal evolution of the temperature (top) and radius (bottom) obtained from the blackbody fits. Black, gray, and blue points represent the single-component, hot– component, and cool-component fits, respectively. perature of the cool component decreased from approx￾imately 3000 K to 1800 K, while the radius increased from ∼ 1.1 × 1016 cm to ∼ 3.1 × 1016 cm. The origin of this cool component would be newly… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Upper panel: Pseudo-bolometric light curve derived from the optical–NIR SEDs (black) and from the UV–optical–NIR SEDs (purple). The optical and NIR lumi￾nosities are also shown (blue and red, respectively). Epochs at early phases for which i-band data are unavailable are shown in gray. Lower panel: Temporal evolution of the op￾tical (gri) and NIR (JHKs) contributions to the bolometric luminosity (griJHKs).… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The spectra of SN 2024dy. The first two (upper side) spectra were published on TNS. The numbers indicate the days since the estimated explosion date. Several spectra obtained during Season 2 have been smoothed for clarity. The grey lines around 6800 and 7500 ˚A indicate the telluric absorption features, which are corrected in some spectra. in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Comparison between the spectra of SN 2024dy and those of other long-lived Type IIn SNe. Top panel: early phase (< 50 d). Middle panel: post-peak phase (50 d to the end of Season 1). Bottom panel: late phase (> 300 d). The redshifts for SN 2010jl, SN 2015da, SN 2017hcc and SN 2021irp were adopted from the literature cited below; C. Fransson et al. (2014); L. Tartaglia et al. (2020); S. Moran et al. (2023); … view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Evolution of the Hα emission line. The contin￾uum has been subtracted, and each profile is normalized to the peak of the narrow component. metric profile, with a Lorentzian FWHM of 1500 ∼ 1800 km s−1 . The narrow component has a FWHM of ∼ 300 km s−1 in the first spectrum, which has the highest spectral res￾olution among our spectra. The FWHM of the narrow Gaussian component measured in the 8 d spectrum is … view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Fits to the Hα line profiles at 47, 75, 135, and 335 d. The 47 d profile is modeled with a combination of a Gaussian and a Lorentzian component, while the later epochs are fitted using multiple Gaussian components. 1×1040 1×1041 Luminosity (erg s−1 ) Hα Hβ 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 100 200 300 400 500 Line rato Time from explosion (day) Hα/Hβ [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_9.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Upper: Evolution of the Hα (black) and Hβ (gray) line luminosities. Lower: Temporal evolution of the Hα/Hβ flux ratio. The expected Case B recombination value (Hα/Hβ ≈ 3) is indicated by the dashed line. velocity typical of LBVs, vw ∼ 100 km s−1 (N. Smith 2017). For the velocity of the SN ejecta vSN, for which we adopt an expansion velocity of vSN = 7700 km s−1 inferred from the temporal evolution of the … view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Hα profiles in Season 2, with the blue side reflected onto the red side across the rest wavelength. The reflected profiles are shown in red, and the rest wavelength is indicated by a black dashed line [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_11.png] view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: presents the SEDs at representative epochs, including the final epoch of Season 1 and two epochs from Season 2. A single BB component reproduces the Season 1 SED well (as discussed in section 3.3). For the Season 2 epochs, the observed NIR excess is well explained by adding a dust emission component, mod￾eled as carbon dust, to the BB emission. The r-band is excluded from the fitting because it is contami… view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: shows the time evolution of the dust mass we estimated for SN 2024dy in Section 5.4.1 (black points). Similarly, we show for comparison the time evolution of dust masses estimated under the assumption of carbon grains for several other Type II SNe, including SN 2010jl (A. Sarangi et al. 2018), SN 2015da (L. Tartaglia et al. 2020), and SN 2021irp (T. M. Reynolds et al. 2025). As is clear from this comparis… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Type~IIn supernovae (SNe) are a subclass of core-collapse SNe powered by interaction between the ejecta and the dense circumstellar material. Among them, long-lived Type~IIn events are characterized by luminous, long-duration light curves with high radiative energy. Several cases of long-lived type IIn SNe exhibit substantial dust emission at late times. However, well-observed examples remain limited, and the details of their dust formation mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here we present photometric and spectroscopic observations of the Type~IIn SN~2024dy in ultraviolet, optical, and near-infrared (NIR) wavelength for $500$ days. SN~2024dy reached a peak magnitude of $M_r=-19.2$~mag with a total radiation energy of $1.9\times10^{50}$~erg. A NIR excess emerged at late phases, and the spectral energy distribution modeling indicates the presence of carbon dust with temperatures of $1300$-$1800$~K and masses of about $10^{-5}\ M_\odot$. The spectra features were typical of long-lived Type~IIn SNe. The late time H$\alpha$ profile exhibits a strong suppression of the red wing, providing evidence for newly formed dust. Our results suggest that the derived dust mass above may be underestimated due to optical depth effects. SN~2024dy provides an important observational case for understanding dust formation in Type~IIn SNe.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 1 minor

Summary. The manuscript presents UV/optical/NIR photometry and spectroscopy of the long-lived Type IIn supernova SN 2024dy spanning 500 days post-explosion. It reports a peak Mr = -19.2 mag, total radiated energy of 1.9 × 10^50 erg, emergence of a late-time NIR excess, and SED modeling that attributes this excess to carbon dust at 1300–1800 K with mass ~10^{-5} M_⊙. The late-time Hα line profile is cited as showing red-wing suppression, interpreted as evidence for newly formed dust; the authors note that the derived mass may be underestimated owing to optical-depth effects.

Significance. If the attribution of the NIR excess to newly formed dust is robust, the work adds a well-observed case to the limited sample of dust-producing long-lived Type IIn events and supplies a quantitative dust-mass constraint in a dense-CSM environment. The data reduction and basic light-curve properties appear standard; however, the quantitative dust-mass result rests on a simple SED fit whose uncertainties and alternative interpretations are not fully explored in the provided text.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract (SED modeling paragraph): the claim of carbon dust with T = 1300–1800 K and M_d ≈ 10^{-5} M_⊙ is presented without reported χ² values, parameter uncertainties, or explicit comparison to alternative continuum sources (free-free emission, pre-existing CSM dust). This is load-bearing because the manuscript itself flags possible optical-depth underestimation and the skeptic note identifies the lack of discrimination from pre-existing dust as the weakest assumption.
  2. [Late-time spectra] Hα profile discussion (late-time spectra section): the red-wing suppression is offered as supporting evidence for new dust, yet no quantitative radiative-transfer or geometric models are described to test whether the asymmetry could arise from ejecta geometry or scattering independent of dust. This directly affects the central claim that the NIR excess traces newly formed dust.
minor comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] Notation: the abstract uses “Type~IIn” (likely a non-breaking-space artifact); ensure consistent supernova subclass notation throughout the text and figures.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive report and the opportunity to clarify our analysis. We address each major comment below and have revised the manuscript accordingly to strengthen the presentation of the SED results and the supporting evidence for dust formation.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract (SED modeling paragraph): the claim of carbon dust with T = 1300–1800 K and M_d ≈ 10^{-5} M_⊙ is presented without reported χ² values, parameter uncertainties, or explicit comparison to alternative continuum sources (free-free emission, pre-existing CSM dust). This is load-bearing because the manuscript itself flags possible optical-depth underestimation and the skeptic note identifies the lack of discrimination from pre-existing dust as the weakest assumption.

    Authors: We agree that the SED modeling section and abstract require additional quantitative details. In the revised manuscript we will report the χ² values of the fits, include formal uncertainties on temperature and dust mass derived from the modeling, and add an explicit comparison to alternative sources. Free-free emission is disfavored by the observed spectral shape and flux levels at the relevant epochs, while the high temperatures (1300–1800 K) are inconsistent with typical pre-existing CSM dust; we will expand this discussion and retain the caveat on possible optical-depth underestimation. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Late-time spectra] Hα profile discussion (late-time spectra section): the red-wing suppression is offered as supporting evidence for new dust, yet no quantitative radiative-transfer or geometric models are described to test whether the asymmetry could arise from ejecta geometry or scattering independent of dust. This directly affects the central claim that the NIR excess traces newly formed dust.

    Authors: The red-wing suppression is presented alongside the contemporaneous NIR excess, which together favor newly formed dust over purely geometric effects. We acknowledge that the manuscript does not include quantitative radiative-transfer or geometric modeling. In revision we will expand the late-time spectra section to discuss alternative interpretations (asymmetric ejecta, scattering) and note that full RT calculations lie beyond the scope of this observational study; the combined photometric and spectroscopic evidence remains the primary support for the dust interpretation. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: dust parameters obtained via direct observational fitting

full rationale

The paper's central results (carbon dust T=1300-1800 K, M_d~10^{-5} M_⊙) come from standard SED modeling fitted to the observed NIR photometry and spectra, with the Hα red-wing suppression presented as independent supporting evidence. No derivation chain reduces by construction to fitted inputs, no self-citations are invoked as load-bearing uniqueness theorems, and no ansatz or renaming of known results is used. The derivation is self-contained against the external photometric and spectroscopic data.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

2 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The dust-mass result rests on the assumption that NIR excess is thermal emission from newly formed carbon grains and on standard blackbody or modified-blackbody SED fitting routines; no new physical entities are introduced.

free parameters (2)
  • dust temperature = 1300-1800 K
    Fitted parameter range 1300-1800 K chosen to match the observed NIR colors
  • dust mass = ~10^{-5} M_⊙
    Derived quantity from SED normalization to the observed flux
axioms (2)
  • domain assumption NIR excess originates from thermal emission of newly condensed dust grains rather than other continuum processes
    Invoked when interpreting the late-time photometry as dust emission
  • domain assumption Standard dust opacity and emissivity laws for carbon grains apply at the derived temperatures
    Required for converting observed flux to mass

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5877 in / 1547 out tokens · 35218 ms · 2026-06-26T20:19:29.790953+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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