Where did all the Little Red Dots go? The abundance of LRD analogues among objects with broad lines at $z < 0.35$

Lasse Seyberlich; Sarah E. I. Bosman

REVIEW 4 major objections 5 minor 234 references

Where did all the Little Red Dots go? The abundance of LRD analogues among objects with broad lines at $z < 0.35$

T0 review · 4 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-08 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗

Pith's one-line read Only 0.08% of local broad-line objects at z<0.35 have LRD-like SEDs, so the Little Red Dot phenomenon has largely vanished by today.

desk verdict A systematic, morphology-free search for local LRD analogues; the rarity result is probably right, but 0.08% is a parent-sample lower limit, not a cosmic abundance. read the letter →

arxiv 2608.05267 v1 pith:BDPMERJS submitted 2026-08-05 astro-ph.GA

Lasse Seyberlich , Sarah E. I. Bosman This is my paper · ORCID

classification astro-ph.GA

keywords galaxies:activequasars:supermassiveblackholesLittleRedDotsLRDanaloguesbroad-lineAGNspectralenergydistributionsmodifiedbodySDSSDR7

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper asks whether the mysterious "Little Red Dots" revealed by JWST at redshifts $z\approx4$–$9$ have counterparts in the local universe, and finds that they are extraordinarily rare. Starting from a catalogue of all 14,584 SDSS objects with broad Balmer lines at $0

What carries the argument

The load-bearing object is the modified black body (MBB) fit, $f_{\rm MBB}=A_{\rm tot}B_\nu(T)(\nu/\nu_0)^{\beta_{\rm MBB}}$ with pivot $\nu_0=c/5500$ Å, adopted from the high-redshift LRD fits of de Graaff et al. (2025a); it describes the red-optical rise and NIR flattening that define an LRD-like SED. The selection pipeline fits this form to the rest-frame optical spectra of all 14,584 objects in the L19 broad-line catalogue, then applies cuts on the best-fit peak wavelength $\lambda_{\rm peak}$, the modification index $\beta_{\rm MBB}$, the ratio $L_{5100}/L_{\rm MBB}$, the Balmer break strength, the [OIII] $\lambda5007$ equivalent width, and the v-shape condition $\beta_{\rm UV}<-0.2$, $\beta_{\rm OPT}>0$, $\beta_{\rm OPT}-\beta_{\rm UV}>0.5$. The MBB fit is what separates the 2,778 v-shaped objects from the final nine: it encodes the specific SED shape shared by high-redshift LRDs, and the cuts on its parameters carry the abundance argument.

What would settle it

A spectroscopic census of broad-line objects at $z<0.35$ that does not rely on SDSS DR7 target selection—for example a dense slitless or integral-field survey—would settle the claim: if the rate of LRD-like MBB SEDs among broad-line objects were found to be an order of magnitude above 0.08%, or even above the paper's own 0.16% upper bound when cold-peak SEDs are included, the central claim of extreme local rarity would be overturned.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

On the paper's own terms, the central discovery is an abundance measurement: among every object in the local universe ($z<0.35$) with a broad H$\alpha$ or H$\beta$ line—14,584 galaxies and quasars in the SDSS DR7-based L19 catalogue—only nine have spectral energy distributions resembling high-redshift LRDs. The selection requires a v-shaped SED, a modified black body (MBB) shape with $\beta_{\rm MBB}>-3$, $\lambda_{\rm peak}>0.5\,\mu$m and $\lambda_{\rm peak}+0.1\,\beta_{\rm MBB}>0.4$, a continuum-to-H$\alpha$ luminosity ratio $\log_{10} L_{5100}-\log_{10} L_{\rm H\alpha}<1.4$, $L_{5100}/L_{\rm MBB}$ consistent with the LRD anti-correlation, and a diagonal cut in [OIII] $\lambda5007$ equivalent width versus Balmer break strength. The paper reports that 19% of broad-line objects show a v-shaped SED and 5% of the luminosity-matched subset do, but the full MBB-like selection leaves nine objects, 0.08% of the parent catalogue (up to 0.16% when SED peaks outside the fitted wavelength range are accounted for). One of the nine, J1025+1402, is the previously identified analogue "The Egg", which the authors take as validation; the others include one object (J0302-0101) that shows every LRD hallmark while embedded in a galaxy core, two double-peaked emitters, two strongly variable objects, and two with heavy host contamination. The claim is that LRD-like objects are extremely rare at low redshift even with the compactness criterion dropped, so the population seen at $z\sim4$–$9$ has largely disappeared by today.

Load-bearing premise

The load-bearing premise is that the L19 catalogue, built from SDSS DR7 spectra of galaxies and quasars whose H$\alpha$ falls in the spectrograph range, is a complete enough census of broad-line objects at $z<0.35$ that the 0.08% fraction measures the true rarity rather than the incompleteness of SDSS target selection.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

If the abundance claim holds, the LRD phenomenon—whatever physical process produces v-shaped, MBB-like SEDs with broad Balmer lines—has declined by orders of magnitude since $z\approx4$–$9$, and the nine objects constitute a near-complete local census for studying it.
Dropping the compactness criterion does not change the rarity: even extended objects with broad lines rarely show LRD-like SEDs at $z<0.35$, so the low-redshift absence is not driven by morphology or surface-brightness dimming.
The nine analogues, and especially J0302-0101 which passes all LRD criteria while embedded in a galaxy core, provide the first practical targets for cheap multi-wavelength follow-up (X-ray, radio, variability, high-resolution spectroscopy) to discriminate between obscured-AGN and dense-gas models of LRDs.
The paper's own recovery of "The Egg" as one of the nine validates the method, while the failure to select two previously known analogues (J1047+0739 and J1022+0841) due to wavelength coverage and SNR shows that the 0.08% fraction is a lower bound that could rise with better data.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

Because the 0.08% fraction is relative to the SDSS DR7-targeted L19 catalogue, a complete magnitude-limited census of broad-line objects (not relying on SDSS target selection) could shift the rate by a factor of a few; the qualitative rarity is likely robust, but the exact number is not yet population-level.
The two variable objects with photometry-spectrum mismatches (J1302+2949 and J1415+1936) raise the possibility—suggested but not proven in the paper—that LRD-like states are transitory phases; if so, the instantaneous abundance understates how many objects ever pass through the phase, and variability monitoring of the other seven analogues would be a direct test.
If LRD analogues are the extreme tail of a continuum of AGN properties, as the paper's diagnostic plots hint, then any count-based rarity is cut-dependent; a physically motivated definition (e.g., tied to the Balmer-limit inflection point) might yield a different local census.
Applying the same MBB-based selection to the complete parent sample once SPHEREx data become fully available would convert the paper's upper estimate of 0.16% into a measured fraction and resolve how many cold-peak analogues were missed.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

Here's the thing you should know: this paper does something genuinely new—a systematic search for local LRD analogues that deliberately drops the compactness requirement and works from a broad-line parent sample. It recovers the Egg, which validates the method, and it finds one new object, J0302-0101, that passes every LRD hallmark. That alone makes it useful.

The paper is also refreshingly honest. It tells you that of the nine final candidates, two are double-peaked emitters, two show photometry-spectrum mismatches, and two have host contamination. The authors don't oversell the nine as nine confirmed analogues.

Now the soft spots. The abstract calls the parent sample 'unbiased.' That's true only in the narrow sense that it wasn't pre-selected for LRD-like properties. It's still SDSS DR7, which is flux-limited and spectroscopically targeted, so the 0.08% fraction is relative to that catalogue, not to the full cosmic population. The paper never converts to a completeness-corrected number density, and it doesn't really try. That matters because the conclusion leans on 'extremely rare.' I think the qualitative claim survives—even if the true fraction were several times higher, it would still be a small number. But the specific 0.08% should be labeled as a lower limit with systematic uncertainties attached.

The selection cuts are also hand-tuned to the dG25 high-z sample. That's not circular, since the cuts come from an independent high-z sample, but it does mean the abundance estimate only applies to objects that look like the extreme end of the LRD population. The paper acknowledges this and even shows that relaxing the 1-sigma constraints gives 60 candidates. A skeptical reader could worry that the 'extremely rare' headline is partly baked into the strictness of the cuts. I think the authors handle this reasonably by discussing it, but a referee should push them to state the abundance as conditional on the selection.

Who is this for? Anyone working on LRD nature, low-z analogues, or AGN demographics. It deserves a serious referee. My recommendation: engage with it, but ask for a clearer framing of the abundance as a parent-sample-relative lower limit, and possibly a split of candidates by confidence.

Referee Report

4 major / 5 minor

Summary. This paper presents a search for local analogues of high-redshift Little Red Dots (LRDs) using the Liu et al. (2019) catalogue of 14,584 broad-line objects at z<0.35 from SDSS DR7. The authors apply v-shaped SED and modified black body (MBB) selection criteria derived from the high-z LRD sample of de Graaff et al. (2025a), without enforcing the compactness criterion. They report that 19% of broad-line objects have v-shaped SEDs, identify nine objects with MBB-like SEDs (0.08% of the parent sample), and recover the previously known analogue 'The Egg'. They discuss each candidate individually, noting alternative explanations for most, and conclude that LRD-like objects are extremely rare at z<0.35.

Significance. If the quantitative result were robust, the paper would provide a nearly complete local sample for LRD follow-up and a strong constraint on the evolution of the LRD phenomenon. The methodology is commendable: the selection is anchored to an external high-z sample (avoiding circularity), the recovery of the Egg validates the approach, and the authors are transparent about the caveats of individual candidates. However, the headline abundance figure is not currently presented in a self-consistent way, and the parent sample is not an unbiased census of broad-line objects in the local Universe. These issues bear directly on the paper's central claim and must be resolved before the quantitative conclusions can be accepted.

major comments (4)

[Abstract, Sec. 3.4] The abstract and Conclusions state that 'nine local LRD analogues, corresponding to 0.08% of all objects with broad lines' are found, but the body of the paper gives a different basis for the 0.08% figure. In Sec. 3.4 the authors write that 9110 objects are within the reliable λ_peak range at 1σ and only seven of the nine analogues are among them, and they 'correct the fraction ... up to 0.08%'. This implies 7/9110 ≈ 0.077%, whereas 9/14584 ≈ 0.06%. The numerator and denominator behind the 0.08% need to be stated explicitly; as written, the abstract's association of nine objects with 0.08% of 'all objects with broad lines' is arithmetically inconsistent with both ratios.
[Sec. 2.1, Abstract] The parent catalogue is described as 'unbiased' and the conclusions claim LRDs are 'extremely rare at z<0.35', but the L19 catalogue is built from SDSS DR7 targeted spectroscopy. SDSS main galaxy selection is flux-limited (r<17.77), quasar targets are selected via colour cuts, and fiber collisions prevent complete spectroscopic coverage. The 0.08% fraction is therefore measured relative to the SDSS DR7 broad-line sample, not to a complete census of broad-line objects at z<0.35. Without completeness corrections or an explicit restriction of the claim to this sample, the quantitative rarity statement is not established.
[Sec. 3.2.4 vs Table 1] There is a direct inconsistency in the definition of the final selection cut. Sec. 3.2.4 states the cut as log10 EW_λ5007 + 2.2·log10(BBS) > 1.7, while Table 1 lists 'log10 EWλ5007 +1.5·log10 Balmer break strength>1.8'. Since this cut determines the final nine-object sample, readers cannot reproduce the selection without knowing which version was used. Please correct the discrepancy and confirm the exact criterion.
[Sec. 4.2, 5.1] The paper's own individual-object discussion severely limits the robustness of the headline count of nine analogues. Sec. 5.1 states that two candidates (J1416+0219, J1417+6141) are double-peaked emitters and should be treated with caution; Sec. 4.2.4 notes that J1302+2949 and J1415+1936 show no v-shape in the photometry alone, so their classification is uncertain; and two further objects (J1443+5201, J1602+0950) have possible host contamination. Only J0302−0101 is described as showing all LRD hallmarks. The abundance claim should be presented with a robust subset or a range reflecting these uncertainties, rather than a single count of nine.

minor comments (5)

[Sec. 3.2.1] The phrase 'using a lower limit as a selection cut' is incorrect because the implemented cut log10 L5100 − log10 LHα < 1.4 is an upper limit on the difference.
[Sec. 4.2.4] The sentence 'The object be therefore be transition out of an LRD phase' contains a grammatical error; it should read 'The object may therefore be transitioning out of an LRD phase'.
[Sec. 3.3] 'homogenous' should be 'homogeneous'.
[Figure 4 and A.1 captions] The x-axis label 'rest[Å]' should be expanded to 'Rest-frame wavelength [Å]' for clarity.
[Sec. 3.4] The statement 'only seven of the nine local analogues' would benefit from an explicit remark that the remaining two are still retained as candidates, so that the reader understands how the nine-object sample relates to the 0.08% fraction.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the LRD-analogue criteria are anchored to external high-redshift samples (dG25, Hviding et al. 2025) and the L19 parent catalogue, so the 0.08% abundance is a direct external-benchmark measurement, not a self-derived prediction.

full rationale

The paper's central result is an abundance measurement, not a prediction derived from its own inputs. The selection criteria are anchored to two external samples: the parent catalogue of broad-line objects comes from Liu et al. (2019, L19), and the LRD 'target region' in the diagnostic diagrams is defined by de Graaff et al. (2025a, dG25) and Hviding et al. (2025), none of which are authored by the present authors. The v-shaped SED cut (Sec. 3.1.1), the luminosity relation cut (Sec. 3.2.1), the MBB parameter region (Sec. 3.2.2), and the [OIII]-Balmer-break diagonal cut (Sec. 3.2.4) are all quantified from the dG25 high-redshift LRD locus after overlaying the local sample; the final count of nine objects that fall inside that externally anchored region is then a direct empirical measurement. The one claimed validation, recovery of the previously known 'Egg' analogue (Sec. 4.1), is against an independently discovered object (Lin et al. 2026b; Ji et al. 2026), providing genuine external confirmation that the selection is not merely re-identifying objects it was engineered to find. The self-citations in the paper (Bosman et al. 2024, 2025; Davies et al. 2026) are contextual comparisons of NIR SED behavior and a mention of a future data pipeline; none of them carries the abundance claim. The main caveat to the 0.08% figure is the SDSS DR7 targeted nature of the L19 parent sample plus the hand-tuned 'empirically quantified' thresholds, which the paper partly acknowledges (relaxing 1-sigma cuts yields 60 candidates; cold MBBs could raise the fraction to 0.16%); these are completeness and robustness concerns, not circularity. No equation in the paper reduces to its own input, and no load-bearing premise rests on a self-citation chain. The derivation chain is self-contained against external benchmarks, so the appropriate circularity score is 0.

Assumptions & free parameters 5 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 0 invented entities

No new physical entities are introduced. The Black Hole Star and dense-gas models are cited from prior literature and are not inventions of this paper. The main free parameters are the hand-tuned selection thresholds used to define LRD likeness.

free parameters (5)

Continuum-line luminosity cut = log10 L5100 - log10 LHalpha < 1.4
Chosen as a lower limit to include sources with LRD-like L5100 vs LHalpha relation from dG25; not derived from theory.
MBB shape cuts = betaMBB > -3; lambda_peak > 0.5 micron; lambda_peak + 0.1 betaMBB > 0.4
Empirically quantified to enclose the dG25 LRD parameter region (Sec. 3.2.2).
MBB luminosity ratio cut = log10(L5100/LMBB) + 2 lambda_peak > 0.5
Chosen to match the anti-correlation seen in dG25; threshold set by eye on Figure 3.
[OIII] EW versus Balmer break cut = log10 EW[OIII] + 2.2 log10 BBS > 1.7
Diagonal cut to include LRD-like objects in the anti-correlation plane; threshold not derived a priori.
Significance thresholds = 1 sigma for non-v-shape cuts, 2 sigma for v-shape cuts
Confidence levels selected by the authors; affect the final number of 9.

assumptions (4)

domain assumption The L19 catalogue is a representative parent sample of all broad-line objects at z<0.35
SDSS DR7 target selection and spectral coverage determine which objects are included; the paper calls it unbiased but completeness is not demonstrated (Sec. 2.1).
domain assumption The modified black body form and the dG25 parameter cuts are appropriate for identifying LRD analogues at low redshift
Assumes the empirical LRD SED properties are largely redshift-independent; the paper relaxes only the compactness criterion (Sec. 3.2.2).
domain assumption The LRD high-z sample of dG25 is representative of the LRD population
The selection cuts are built from this single sample; if dG25 is incomplete or biased, the analogue selection inherits the bias (Sec. 3.2).
standard math Standard flat Lambda CDM cosmology
Used to compute luminosities; consistent with Planck 2020.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Where did all the Little Red Dots go? The abundance of LRD analogues among objects with broad lines at $z < 0.35$." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/BDPMERJS

@misc{pith2026260805267,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Where did all the Little Red Dots go? The abundance of LRD analogues among objects with broad lines at $z < 0.35$},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/BDPMERJS}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2608.05267}
}

abstract

One of the most puzzling discoveries since the launch of the James Webb Space Telescope is a numerous population of sources at high redshift nicknamed ``Little Red Dots'' (LRDs). Characterized by broad Balmer emission lines, compact morphologies and v-shaped spectral energy distributions (SEDs) in the rest-frame optical, the nature of LRDs remains elusive. A major challenge is the high redshift nature of LRDs, which makes observations very expensive and difficult. Finding local LRD analogues is a crucial step in unravelling the physical processes giving rise to LRDs, as cheaper observations with many facilities would become available. In this paper, we conduct a search for local LRD analogues by starting from an unbiased parent catalogue of all SDSS objects with broad H$\alpha$ or H$\beta$ emission lines (both galaxies and quasars) at $0 < z < 0.35$, complemented by archival photometry and spectroscopy. We find that among broad-line objects, $19\%$ show a v-shaped SED. We then select objects whose SED is well described by a modified black body (MBB), and identify nine local LRD analogues, corresponding to $0.08\%$ of all objects with broad lines. Among only objects which match the typical continuum and emission line luminosities of LRDs, $5\%$ display a v-shape and $0.37\%$ display a MBB-like SED. We recover one previously-identified local LRD analogue (the so-called ``Egg''), validating our methodology. Among the other eight analogues, one (J0302$-$0101) shows all the hallmarks of an LRD despite being visibly embedded in the core of a galaxy; another object is ambiguous, and the remaining six may have alternative explanations for their peculiar SEDs. Our study highlights that LRDs are extremely rare at $z < 0.35$; we find very few objects with broad lines which have LRD-like SEDs, even without attempting to match the compactness of LRDs.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2608.05267 by the authors.

**Figure 1.** The measured slopes in the UV (βUV) and in the optical (βOPT). The black lines indicate the colour cuts implemented. The left upper corner represents the objects considered after the selection, which satisfy the criterion of “v-shaped” SED. v-shape selection is fulfilled by 2778 sources. 3.1.2. Compactness Compactness is a core criterium in most studies which have searched for LRDs so far. With their spectroscopic … view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** shows our measurements of L5100 compared to the values from L19. There is substantial scatter around the 1-to-1 line and a clear bias towards our values being larger, indicating the necessity of this process. At the high-luminosity end the measurements are in better agreement, as expected since the AGN starts to dominate the spectrum compared to the host galaxy. For lower luminosity objects, some of the scatter may… view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** Diagnostic map of LRDs (little red dots), the local parent sample (blue points and distributions) and the final selection local LRD analogues (yellow stars). Upper left: βMBB vs. λpeak. Upper right: log10 BBS vs. λpeak. Middle left: log10 L5100 vs. log10 LHα. Middle right: log10 EWλ5007 vs. log10 BBS. Lower left: λpeak vs. log10 L5100/LMBB. Lower right: βNIR vs. Hα/Hβ. The grey line indicates the theoretical expecta… view at source ↗

Figures from the paper (3 more)

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: Spectra in fλ of our 9 local LRD analogues, using SDSS (light blue), photometric data (navy blue), and SPHEREx spectrophotometry (yellow). The red dashed line indicates the Balmer limit. For some sources, the SPHEREx spectra are offset from SDSS. This could be due to …

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: SDSS Spectra of the two local LRD analogues from Lin et al. (2026b) that are not selected as local LRD analogues in this study. behaviour, the Balmer decrement as well as lack of variability. Those are not used in the selection as there is either no clear observationa…

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: Spectra in fλ of all 9 local analogues from SDSS focused on the region between Hβ and Hα. 5. Discussion 5.1. Local LRD Analogues The nine objects in the main sample show observational properties that mimic LRDs in various ways. This does not necessarily mean that they…

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