Pith. sign in

REVIEW 2 major objections 4 minor 194 references

Testing dark matter models and modified gravity theories with spatially resolved HI observations

T0 review · 2 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-10 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗

Pith's one-line read This chapter forecasts that the SKA-Mid telescope in its fourth array assembly (AA4) will deliver HI rotation curves at 1–2 arcsec resolution, for tens of thousands of galaxies, and out to redshift $z\simeq1$, with enough statistical…

desk verdict A competent, well-written SKA review chapter whose only real soft spot is the unanchored z~1 size-evolution assumption behind the 10,000-hour survey forecast. read the letter →

arxiv 2608.07290 v1 pith:USY7DGDR submitted 2026-08-07 astro-ph.GA astro-ph.CO

Federico Lelli , Antonino Marasco , Timothy A. Davis , Nathan Deg , Jonathan Freundlich , Gyula I. G. Jòzsa , Peter Kamphuis , Pavel E. Mancera Piña
show 3 more authors
Stacy S. McGaugh Amidou Sorgho Kristine Spekkens
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.GAastro-ph.CO
keywords 21-cmHIlinegalaxyrotationcurvesdarkmattermodelsmodifiedgravitySKA-Middynamicalscalinglawscusp-coreproblemhigh-redshiftkinematics
topics Dark Matter
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

Seeing the atomic-hydrogen (HI) gas in galaxies at 21 cm has long been one of the cleanest ways to map their outer gravitational pull, because HI disks reach well beyond their stars. This chapter argues that SKA-Mid AA4 will turn that technique into a large-scale test of dark matter: it should reach 1–2 arcsec resolution in inner galaxy regions, produce rotation curves for tens of thousands of galaxies instead of hundreds, and, for the first time, extend reliable HI rotation curves out to redshift $z\simeq1$. If those forecasts hold, astronomers could compare how particle dark matter models and modified-gravity theories predict the tight scaling relations between baryons and galaxy dynamics should scatter, evolve with cosmic time, and depend on environment. The paper also argues that the data volume will force a shift from visual inspection to automated, Bayesian, and machine-learning kinematic modelling.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing object is the spatially resolved HI rotation curve, measured from the 21-cm line and modeled as a rotating disk through the standard relation $V_{\rm los}(x,y)=V_{\rm sys}+V_{\rm rot}(R)\sin i\cos\theta$, with the inclination $i$ and position angle set by the projected ellipse. The forecast for what SKA-Mid AA4 can do rests on a quantitative resolution metric: a usable rotation curve requires a column-density sensitivity near $1\,M_\odot\,{\rm pc}^{-2}$ and at least five independent beams across the major axis, applied to the local HI mass function and HI mass–size relation together with cosmological redshift dimming and broadening. On the modelling side, the machinery is 3D forward modelling in datacubes, and eventually fitting in the $uv$-plane, to handle beam smearing in barely resolved galaxies, plus automated acceptance and quality-control criteria for samples of tens of thousands.

What would settle it

A concrete check would be to carry out a deep, 10,000-hour-class Band-1 observation in a well-studied cosmological field and measure angular sizes of galaxies with HI masses near $10^{10}$ solar masses at $z\simeq1$. If fewer than five independent beams fit across the major axis of the typical such disk, the paper's redshift-one rotation-curve forecast fails; if five or more beams are available and the outer velocity fields are mapped, the forecast is confirmed.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

On its own terms, the paper's central claim is that SKA-Mid AA4 will change HI rotation-curve studies from a small, heterogeneous enterprise into a statistical and cosmic-time machine. Three capabilities are forecast: targeted observations at about 1–2 arcsec resolution can resolve the inner rising parts of rotation curves and measure dark-matter core properties in dwarf galaxies; a wide or pointed survey can spatially resolve the HI kinematics of roughly twenty thousand galaxies across environments from clusters to voids; and a very deep, roughly 10,000-hour, Band-1 pencil-beam survey can place five or more independent resolution elements across the major axes of galaxies with HI mass near $10^{10}$ solar masses at $z\simeq1$. The paper connects these capabilities to the empirical dynamical laws of galaxies—the baryonic Tully-Fisher relation, the central density relation, and the radial acceleration relation—and notes that particle dark matter and modified gravity predict opposite behaviors for the intrinsic scatter, redshift evolution, and environmental residuals of these laws. It concludes that discriminating between those predictions is what would allow the dark matter problem to be closed.

Load-bearing premise

For the $z\simeq1$ part of the forecast, the load-bearing premise is that the local HI mass–size relation and HI mass function still describe galaxies at $z\simeq1$; if high-redshift HI disks are smaller or more diffuse than that extrapolation, a 10,000-hour survey would not put five resolution elements across them and the outermost, dark-matter-dominated regions would remain unresolved.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • At 1–2 arcsec resolution, dark-matter core sizes and inner density slopes in low-mass galaxies can be measured, testing cusp–core expectations and distinguishing feedback-driven core formation from self-interacting or fuzzy dark matter.
  • A sample of tens of thousands of resolved galaxies lets the baryonic Tully-Fisher, central density, and radial acceleration relations be measured with known selection functions, and their scatter compared with the tiny scatter expected from modified gravity versus the larger emergent scatter of galaxy-formation models.
  • HI rotation curves at $z\simeq1$ would probe the outer, low-acceleration regions of massive galaxies, avoiding the disk–halo degeneracy that limits H$\alpha$ and CO kinematics at cosmic noon.
  • Testing whether the dynamical laws evolve over roughly 8 Gyr and differ with environment would be one of the few observations capable of separating particle dark matter from modified gravity.
  • The automated 3D and $uv$-plane fitting tools required for this data volume would also make the selection function reproducible when comparing observations to cosmological simulations.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • An implication the authors leave implicit: if the 10,000-hour Band-1 survey resolves only galaxies near HI mass $10^{10}$ solar masses at $z\simeq1$, tests of the dynamical scaling laws at cosmic noon would be confined to the high-mass end, leaving the low-acceleration regime that most strongly separates dark matter from modified gravity unprobed beyond $z\simeq0.1$.
  • The authors describe the $0.1\lesssim z\lesssim0.2$ radio-frequency-interference gap but do not state what follows: unless mitigation closes it, any claimed measurement of redshift evolution in the dynamical laws will need to interpolate across a substantial part of cosmic time, weakening the test.
  • Before SKA data arrive, the proposed five-beam resolution metric could be checked by running the same automated 3D fitting software on mock observations built from very high-resolution local HI datacubes, asking what fraction of realistic disk geometries actually pass the acceptance criteria at low signal-to-noise ratios.
Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

2 major / 4 minor

Summary. This chapter, written for the 'Advancing Astrophysics with the SKA – II' volume, reviews how SKA-Mid Array Assembly 4 (AA4) will advance the study of galactic dark matter and modified-gravity theories through spatially resolved HI 21-cm observations. It outlines three observing programs: high-resolution (roughly 1-2 arcsec) HI mapping of nearby galaxies to address the cusp-core problem and test MOND, wide and pointed surveys to build samples of tens of thousands of galaxies with resolved kinematics, and a very deep (about 10,000 hours) Band-1 pencil-beam survey to push resolved HI rotation curves to z about 1. The chapter also reviews the state of kinematic modeling tools and identifies key technical challenges for automated analysis. Its central claim is that these programs will allow tests that discriminate between particle dark matter and MOND-type theories, potentially closing the loop on the dark matter problem.

Significance. If the forecasts are correct, the proposed SKA-Mid AA4 programs would be transformative: they would provide the first large-sample, high-resolution HI kinematic data at z about 1, where dark matter and modified-gravity models make divergent predictions for the evolution of dynamical scaling laws. The chapter's survey of the literature is accurate and balanced, and it is careful to label its quantitative estimates as rough rather than precise. It also correctly identifies the need for automated, bias-tested kinematic modeling pipelines and for modeling in the uv-plane. No part of the chapter is internally circular; its claims are extrapolations from established local relations and instrument specifications. The main risk is that the z about 1 rotation-curve forecast rests on an unverified extrapolation of the HI mass-size relation, and that the 'tens of thousands of resolved galaxies' yield estimate lacks an explicit resolution threshold. Both issues are fixable in revision and do not invalidate the review's overall scientific case.

major comments (2)
  1. [Sec. 3.3 and Sec. 5] The claim that a roughly 10,000-hour Band-1 survey with SKA-Mid AA4 will map M_HI about 10^10 M_sun galaxies at z about 1 with at least five independent resolution elements along the major axis assumes that the local HI mass-size relation of Wang et al. (2016) holds at z about 1. The manuscript cites HI-stacking results for the evolution of the M_star-M_HI relation (e.g., Chowdhury et al. 2020; Bera et al. 2023), but it provides no empirical or simulation-based constraint on the size evolution of HI disks. Because high-redshift stellar disks are observed to be more compact at fixed stellar mass, a plausible shrinking of HI disks would directly reduce the number of resolution elements and undermine the stated ability to reach the low-acceleration, DM-dominated outskirts at z about 1. This assumption is load-bearing for the 'close the loop' statement in Sec. 5. I recommend that the authors either provide a quantitative assessment of the impact of size evolution (for example, by considering a range of size-mass relations from simulations) or explicitly frame the 10,000-hour survey as an optimistic upper limit contingent on no significant size evolution.
  2. [Sec. 3.2] The estimate that a 900-hour, 150 deg^2 survey will 'spatially resolve about 20,000 galaxies' is not reproducible because the text does not define the minimum number of resolved elements needed to classify a galaxy as spatially resolved for kinematic purposes. Given that Sec. 4.2.2 and the cited Deg et al. (2025) work show that at least about five beams across the major axis are required for reliable inclination and rotation-curve extraction, the yield should be recomputed (or the threshold explicitly stated) before the 'tens of thousands' figure is used in the abstract. Without this, the headline sample-size forecast cannot be independently checked.
minor comments (4)
  1. [Sec. 3.3] The text refers to 'SKA-Mid AA*' in the discussion of the deep Band-2 survey; this should presumably read 'AA4', as the asterisk appears to be a typographical artifact.
  2. [Sec. 3.1] The statement that 20 hours of Band-2 observation detects an HI column density of about 5 M_sun pc^-2 over 16 km/s at resolutions of 1.3 arcsec and 3.1 km/s lacks the assumed system temperature, bandwidth, or a reference to the sensitivity calculator and therefore cannot be independently verified.
  3. [Sec. 3.3] The text alternates between a 'Band-2 survey' for the range z about 0-0.5 and a 'Band-1 survey' for z about 1; please clarify which band and frequency range is meant for each redshift interval.
  4. [References] Several references are future-dated relative to the arXiv submission (e.g., Haubner et al. 2026, Bianchetti et al. 2025, Deg et al. 2025); if this is a book chapter, please identify these as in press or accepted to avoid ambiguity for readers.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the chapter is a forward-looking review that derives no result from fitted parameters or self-citation chains.

full rationale

This is a prospects/review chapter rather than a derivation paper, so the circularity patterns do not apply. It fits no parameters and derives no equations from data; its projections for SKA-Mid AA4 are explicitly framed as estimates built on stated external inputs, such as the local HI mass function (Jones et al. 2018) and the local HI mass-size relation (Wang et al. 2016). When the chapter predicts that a 10,000-hour Band-1 survey can map M_HI~1e10 Msun disks at z~1 (Sec. 3.3), it transparently lists the assumptions used: a column-density sensitivity metric, at least 5 resolution elements across the major axis, the local HI mass-size relation, and cosmological broadening/dimming corrections. This is an extrapolation, and the chapter flags the conditional nature of the estimate, but it is not circular: the assumed size relation is not the quantity being predicted, and no conclusion is constructed to equal its input by definition. The many self-citations (e.g., Lelli et al. 2016b for SPARC, Lelli et al. 2017b for the RAR) are appropriate literature references to prior externally measured results, and the chapter does not invoke a self-authored uniqueness theorem or any load-bearing self-citation chain to force its conclusions. The skeptical concern about high-redshift size evolution is a correctness/robustness risk, not a circularity defect, and the chapter does not claim to have measured such an evolution. Overall, the central claim is independent of its inputs in the sense required for a circularity finding, so the score is 0.

Assumptions & free parameters 4 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The paper is a review, so the ledger records the planning assumptions behind its survey forecasts rather than fitted physical parameters. No new particles, forces, or entities are introduced.

free parameters (4)
  • Column density sensitivity threshold = 1 M_sun pc^-2 (3 sigma)
    Adopted in Sections 3.1 to 3.3 to define detectable and kinematically usable HI disks; drives all sample-size estimates.
  • Angular resolution targets = 1-2 arcsec (nearby), 4.3 arcsec (wide survey)
    Hand-picked SKA-Mid AA4 values used to decide whether a galaxy is spatially resolved in the survey calculations.
  • Wide-survey time and area = 900 hours over 150 deg^2
    Chosen planning figures leading to the estimate of about 20,000 resolved galaxies in Section 3.2.
  • Deep pencil-beam integration time = 10,000 hours in Band 1
    Assumed to reach M_HI about 10^10 M_sun galaxies out to z about 1 in Section 3.3.
assumptions (4)
  • domain assumption The local HI mass function (Jones et al. 2018) and HI mass-size relation (Wang et al. 2016) can be extrapolated to compute survey yields and disk sizes at z about 1.
    Used in Sections 3.2 and 3.3 to derive the expected number of resolved galaxies and the feasibility of z about 1 rotation curves.
  • ad hoc to paper SKA-Mid AA4 will deliver the projected sensitivity, resolution, and RFI environment assumed in the calculations.
    The chapter is a planning document; the telescope performance numbers (e.g., 1.3 arcsec, 3.1 km/s in 20 hours) are assumed, not demonstrated.
  • domain assumption HI rotation curves trace the gravitational potential, with pressure support negligible or correctable via asymmetric drift.
    Foundational for interpreting rotation curves as dynamical tracers; the corrections and their limits are discussed in Section 4.1.2.
  • domain assumption Barely resolved galaxies can be reliably modeled when the major axis is sampled by at least five resolution elements and the inclination is favorable.
    This metric underpins the 20,000-galaxy estimate and is cited to Deg et al. (2025) in Section 4.2.2.

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Testing dark matter models and modified gravity theories with spatially resolved HI observations." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/USY7DGDR

@misc{pith2026260807290,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Testing dark matter models and modified gravity theories with spatially resolved HI observations},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/USY7DGDR}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2608.07290}
}
read the original abstract

Understanding the nature of dark matter (DM) is one of the most pressing questions of modern physics. The flat rotation curves of galaxies, especially the extended HI rotation curves from radio observations at 21 cm, played a key historical role to establish the DM problem and continue to be a major tool to test different galaxy formation models, particle DM models, and modified gravity theories. The SKA observatory will revolutionize the study of HI rotation curves thanks to its unprecedented angular resolution, sensitivity, and survey speed. In combination with optical and near-infrared ancillary data, HI surveys with SKA-Mid AA4 will allow us to (1) obtain HI data at spatial resolutions of 1"-2", probing the inner galaxy dynamics with unprecedented details (e.g., the cusp-core problem); (2) move from representative samples of a few hundreds of objects to statistical samples of tens of thousands of objects, allowing us to study the dynamical scaling laws of galaxies and their DM properties with unprecedented statistical power across different cosmic environments; (3) move from galaxies at z~0 to galaxies at z~1, probing DM halos at earlier cosmic epochs and exploring the redshift evolution of the dynamical laws across about 8 Gyrs. The massive SKA data, however, will pose important technical challenges for the derivation of HI rotation curves with automated kinematic software. Developing such kinematic software in the SKA era will be crucial to reach major scientific goals, such as discriminating between different solutions to the DM problem.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2608.07290 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Optical images (left panels) and H I maps (right panels) on the same physical scale for four typical spirals: NGC 2403 (top left, Fraternali et al., 2002), NGC 6946 (top right, Boomsma et al., 2008), NGC 5055 (bottom left, Battaglia et al., 2006), and M31 (bottom right, Braun and Thilker, 2004). Considering standard observations, the H I disk is generally more extended than the stellar component. Mass models of gala… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. A classic evidence for the DM effect: the observed rotation curve of the spiral galaxy NGC 3521 differs from that expected from the baryonic distribution. The baryonic contribution (green line; Lelli et al., 2016b) is computed solving the Poisson’s equation for the observed distribution of stars (trace by NIR photometry) and gas (traced by H I interferometry). The H𝛼 rotation curve (red points; Daigle et al., 2006) … view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. The dynamical scaling laws of galaxies (adapted from Lelli, 2022). Panel a: The baryonic Tully￾Fisher relation (BTFR). The dashed line shows the simplest ΛCDM prediction, with slope of 3 and intercept set by the cosmological ratio Ωbar/ΩCDM (see, e.g., McGaugh, 2012). The solid line shows a one-parameter fit fixing the slope to 4, as predicted by MOND. Panel b: The central density relation (CDR). The dashed line cor… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (4 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: H I data at 2′′ resolution from multi-configuration VLA data of the dwarf galaxy I Zw 18 (from Lelli et al., 2012). Left Panel: Total intensity H I map, showing clumps and holes that are not visible at lower resolutions of 5′′ (see [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p0…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Comparison between the dynamical properties of SPARC galaxies at 𝑧 ≃ 0 with those of two best-studied galaxies at cosmic noon, having top-quality H𝛼 data from VLT/SINFONI and multi-line CO data from ALMA (adapted from Lelli et al., 2023). Left panel: The rotation curve…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Prospects for measuring H I rotation curves at 𝑧 > 0 with SKA-Mid. A mock-observed simulated cone of the Universe is shown up to 𝑧 ≃ 1 (adapted from Obreschkow et al., 2009). The dots represent simulated galaxies with detectable H I emission. To date, H I rotation curv…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Geometrical parameters of a rotating disk model (adapted from Di Teodoro and Fraternali, 2015). A thick disk in the physical coordinate system (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦′ , 𝑧′ ) is projected into an ellipse in the plane of the sky (𝑥, 𝑦). The inclination angle 𝑖 is taken with respect to…

Discussion (0). Continue with ORCID to comment.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

194 extracted references · 33 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    E. A. K. Adams et al. , 667: 0 A38, Nov. 2022. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244007

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244007 2022

  2. [2]

    C. P. Ahn et al. , 203 0 (2): 0 21, Dec. 2012. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/203/2/21

    doi:10.1088/0067-0049/203/2/21 2012

  3. [3]

    Amvrosiadis et al

    A. Amvrosiadis et al. , 536 0 (4): 0 3757--3783, Feb. 2025. doi:10.1093/mnras/stae2760

    doi:10.1093/mnras/stae2760 2025

  4. [4]

    Bacchini , F

    C. Bacchini , F. Fraternali , G. Pezzulli , and A. Marasco . Astron. Astrophys., 644: 0 A125, Dec. 2020. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038962

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038962 2020

  5. [5]

    Banik and H

    I. Banik and H. Zhao . Symmetry, 14 0 (7): 0 1331, June 2022. doi:10.3390/sym14071331

    doi:10.3390/sym14071331 2022

  6. [6]

    N. Bar , K. Blum , and C. Sun . , 105 0 (8): 0 083015, Apr. 2022. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.105.083015

    doi:10.1103/physrevd.105.083015 2022

  7. [8]

    Battaglia , F

    G. Battaglia , F. Fraternali , T. Oosterloo , and R. Sancisi . Astron. Astrophys., 447: 0 49--62, Feb. 2006. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053210

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053210 2006

  8. [9]

    K. Begeman. HI Rotation Curves of Spiral Galaxies. PhD thesis, University of Groningen, NL, 1987

    1987

Show all 194 references
  1. [10]

    K. G. Begeman . Astron. Astrophys., 223: 0 47--60, Oct. 1989

    1989

  2. [11]

    Bera , N

    A. Bera , N. Kanekar , J. N. Chengalur , and J. S. Bagla . , 950 0 (2): 0 L18, June 2023. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acd0b3

    2023 doi

  3. [12]

    Bertone and D

    G. Bertone and D. Hooper . Reviews of Modern Physics, 90 0 (4): 0 045002, Oct. 2018. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.90.045002

    2018 doi

  4. [13]

    Bianchetti et al

    A. Bianchetti et al. , 982 0 (2): 0 82, Apr. 2025. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adb1b8

    2025 doi

  5. [14]

    Billard et al

    J. Billard et al. Reports on Progress in Physics, 85 0 (5): 0 056201, May 2022. doi:10.1088/1361-6633/ac5754

    2022 doi

  6. [15]

    Binney and S

    J. Binney and S. Tremaine. Galactic Dynamics. Princeton University Press, Princeton, USA, first edition, 1994

    1994

  7. [16]

    Blanchet and C

    L. Blanchet and C. Skordis . , 2024 0 (11): 0 040, Nov. 2024. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2024/11/040

    2024 doi

  8. [17]

    Bonaldi et al

    A. Bonaldi et al. , 500 0 (3): 0 3821--3837, Jan. 2021. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3023

    2021 doi

  9. [18]

    Boomsma et al

    R. Boomsma et al. , 490 0 (2): 0 555--570, Nov. 2008. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810120

    2008 doi

  10. [19]

    Bose et al

    S. Bose et al. , 486 0 (4): 0 4790--4804, July 2019. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1168

    2019 doi

  11. [20]

    A. Bosma . The distribution and kinematics of neutral hydrogen in spiral galaxies of various morphological types . PhD thesis, University of Groningen, 1978

    1978

  12. [21]

    Bouch \'e et al

    N. Bouch \'e et al. Astron. J., 150 0 (3): 0 92, Sept. 2015. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/150/3/92

    2015 doi

  13. [22]

    Brada and M

    R. Brada and M. Milgrom . , 276 0 (2): 0 453--459, Sept. 1995. doi:10.1093/mnras/276.2.453

    1995 doi

  14. [23]

    Bradbury et al

    J. Bradbury et al. JAX: composable transformations of Python+NumPy programs , 2018. URL http://github.com/google/jax

    2018

  15. [24]

    Braun and D

    R. Braun and D. A. Thilker . , 417: 0 421--435, Apr. 2004. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20034423

    2004 doi

  16. [25]

    J. S. Bullock and M. Boylan-Kolchin . Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 55 0 (1): 0 343--387, Aug. 2017. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-091916-055313

    2017 doi

  17. [26]

    Burkert et al

    A. Burkert et al. Astrophys. J., 725 0 (2): 0 2324--2332, Dec. 2010. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/725/2/2324

    2010 doi

  18. [27]

    V. F. Calderon and A. A. Berlind . , 490 0 (2): 0 2367--2379, Dec. 2019. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2775

    2019 doi

  19. [28]

    J. M. Cannon , N. M. McClure-Griffiths , E. D. Skillman , and S. C \^o t \'e . Astrophys. J., 607: 0 274--284, May 2004. doi:10.1086/383408

    2004 doi

  20. [29]

    Casertano

    S. Casertano . Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 203: 0 735--747, May 1983

    1983

  21. [30]

    K.-H. Chae . , 941 0 (1): 0 55, Dec. 2022. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac93fc

    2022 doi

  22. [31]

    Chae et al

    K.-H. Chae et al. Astrophys. J., 904 0 (1): 0 51, Nov. 2020. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abbb96

    2020 doi

  23. [32]

    Chae et al

    K.-H. Chae et al. , 921 0 (2): 0 104, Nov. 2021. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac1bba

    2021 doi

  24. [33]

    Chae et al

    K.-H. Chae et al. , 106 0 (10): 0 103025, Nov. 2022. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.106.103025

    2022 doi

  25. [34]

    Chowdhury et al

    A. Chowdhury et al. , 586 0 (7829): 0 369--372, Oct. 2020. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2794-7

    2020 doi

  26. [35]

    Chowdhury , N

    A. Chowdhury , N. Kanekar , and J. N. Chengalur . , 937 0 (2): 0 103, Oct. 2022 a . doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac7d52

    2022 doi

  27. [36]

    Chowdhury , N

    A. Chowdhury , N. Kanekar , and J. N. Chengalur . , 935 0 (1): 0 L5, Aug. 2022 b . doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac8150

    2022 doi

  28. [37]

    Chu et al

    J. Chu et al. , 528 0 (4): 0 6354--6369, Mar. 2024. doi:10.1093/mnras/stae406

    2024 doi

  29. [38]

    Col \' n , V

    P. Col \' n , V. Avila-Reese , and O. Valenzuela . , 542 0 (2): 0 622--630, Oct. 2000. doi:10.1086/317057

    2000 doi

  30. [39]

    Corbelli and S

    E. Corbelli and S. E. Schneider . Astrophys. J., 479 0 (1): 0 244--257, Apr. 1997. doi:10.1086/303849

    1997 doi

  31. [40]

    Cornu et al

    D. Cornu et al. , 690: 0 A211, Oct. 2024. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202449548

    2024 doi

  32. [41]

    Cornu et al

    D. Cornu et al. , 707: 0 A203, Mar. 2026. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202557257

    2026 doi

  33. [43]

    A. L. Danhaive and S. Tacchella . arXiv e-prints, art. arXiv:2510.07369, Oct. 2025. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2510.07369

    2025 doi

  34. [44]

    T. A. Davis . , 443 0 (1): 0 911--918, Sept. 2014. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1163

    2014 doi

  35. [45]

    T. A. Davis et al. , 429 0 (1): 0 534--555, Feb. 2013. doi:10.1093/mnras/sts353

    2013 doi

  36. [47]

    T. A. Davis et al. , 468 0 (4): 0 4675--4690, July 2017 b . doi:10.1093/mnras/stw3217

    2017 doi

  37. [48]

    T. A. Davis , N. Zabel , and J. M. Dawson . KinMS: Three-dimensional kinematic modeling of arbitrary gas distributions . Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:2006.003, June 2020

    2006

  38. [50]

    W. J. G. de Blok . Advances in Astronomy, 2010: 0 789293, Jan. 2010. doi:10.1155/2010/789293

    2010 doi

  39. [51]

    W. J. G. de Blok and A. Bosma . , 385: 0 816--846, Apr. 2002. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20020080

    2002 doi

  40. [52]

    W. J. G. de Blok et al. Astron. J., 136 0 (6): 0 2648--2719, Dec. 2008. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/136/6/2648

    2008 doi

  41. [53]

    Deg et al

    N. Deg et al. , 39: 0 e059, Nov. 2022. doi:10.1017/pasa.2022.43

    2022 doi

  42. [54]

    Deg et al

    N. Deg et al. , 994 0 (2): 0 232, Dec. 2025. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae1003

    2025 doi

  43. [55]

    H. Desmond . , 526 0 (3): 0 3342--3351, Dec. 2023. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2762

    2023 doi

  44. [56]

    Desmond , P

    H. Desmond , P. G. Ferreira , G. Lavaux , and J. Jasche . , 474 0 (3): 0 3152--3161, Mar. 2018. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx3062

    2018 doi

  45. [59]

    E. M. Di Teodoro , F. Fraternali , and S. H. Miller . , 594: 0 A77, Oct. 2016. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201628315

    2016 doi

  46. [60]

    E. M. Di Teodoro et al. , 476 0 (1): 0 804--813, May 2018. doi:10.1093/mnras/sty175

    2018 doi

  47. [61]

    Dubinski and R

    J. Dubinski and R. G. Carlberg . Astrophys. J., 378: 0 496, Sept. 1991. doi:10.1086/170451

    1991 doi

  48. [62]

    A. A. Dutton , A. V. Macci \`o , A. Obreja , and T. Buck . , 485 0 (2): 0 1886--1899, May 2019. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz531

    2019 doi

  49. [63]

    Dye et al

    S. Dye et al. , 476 0 (4): 0 4383--4394, June 2018. doi:10.1093/mnras/sty513

    2018 doi

  50. [64]

    A. A. El-Zant , J. Freundlich , and F. Combes . , 461 0 (2): 0 1745--1759, Sept. 2016. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1398

    2016 doi

  51. [65]

    Epinat , P

    B. Epinat , P. Amram , C. Balkowski , and M. Marcelin . Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 401 0 (4): 0 2113--2147, Feb. 2010. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15688.x

    2010

  52. [66]

    Famaey and S

    B. Famaey and S. S. McGaugh . Living Reviews in Relativity, 15: 0 10, Sept. 2012. doi:10.12942/lrr-2012-10

    2012 doi

  53. [67]

    Fraternali

    F. Fraternali . In A. Fox and R. Dav \'e , editors, Gas Accretion onto Galaxies, volume 430 of Astrophysics and Space Science Library, page 323, Jan. 2017. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-52512-9_14

    2017 doi

  54. [68]

    Fraternali , G

    F. Fraternali , G. van Moorsel , R. Sancisi , and T. Oosterloo . , 123 0 (6): 0 3124--3140, June 2002. doi:10.1086/340358

    2002 doi

  55. [69]

    Freundlich et al

    J. Freundlich et al. , 491 0 (3): 0 4523--4542, Jan. 2020. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz3306

    2020 doi

  56. [70]

    Garaldi , E

    E. Garaldi , E. Romano-D \' az , C. Porciani , and M. S. Pawlowski . Phys. Rev. Lett., 120 0 (26): 0 261301, June 2018. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.120.261301

    2018 doi

  57. [71]

    A. Gasser . Modelling Rotation Curves in Marginally Resolved Warped Galaxies . Master's thesis, Royal Military College of Canada, May 2023. URL https://espace.rmc-cmr.ca/jspui/handle/11264/1287?mode=full

    2023

  58. [72]

    Gentile et al

    G. Gentile et al. Astrophys. J., 634 0 (2): 0 L145--L148, Dec. 2005. doi:10.1086/498939

    2005 doi

  59. [73]

    Gentile , P

    G. Gentile , P. Salucci , U. Klein , and G. L. Granato . Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 375 0 (1): 0 199--212, Feb. 2007. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11283.x

    2007

  60. [74]

    Ghari , B

    A. Ghari , B. Famaey , C. Laporte , and H. Haghi . , 623: 0 A123, Mar. 2019. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834661

    2019 doi

  61. [75]

    J. Goodman . , 5 0 (2): 0 103--107, Apr. 2000. doi:10.1016/S1384-1076(00)00015-4

    2000 doi

  62. [76]

    Governato et al

    F. Governato et al. Nature, 463: 0 203--206, Jan. 2010. doi:10.1038/nature08640

    2010 doi

  63. [78]

    Hahn , C

    C. Hahn , C. Bottrell , and K.-G. Lee . , 968 0 (2): 0 90, June 2024. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad4344

    2024 doi

  64. [79]

    Hartley et al

    P. Hartley et al. , 523 0 (2): 0 1967--1993, Aug. 2023. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad1375

    1967 doi

  65. [80]

    Haubner et al

    K. Haubner et al. In D. J. Pisano , K. M. Mogotsi , J. Healy , and S. Blyth , editors, IAU Symposium, volume 20 of IAU Symposium, pages 119--125, July 2026. doi:10.1017/S1743921324002886

    2026 doi

  66. [81]

    K. M. Hess et al. , 484 0 (2): 0 2234--2256, Apr. 2019. doi:10.1093/mnras/sty3421

    2019 doi

  67. [82]

    L. M. Hogarth et al. , 528 0 (4): 0 6768--6785, Mar. 2024. doi:10.1093/mnras/stae377

    2024 doi

  68. [83]

    Hossenfelder and T

    S. Hossenfelder and T. Mistele . International Journal of Modern Physics D, 27 0 (14): 0 1847010, Jan. 2018. doi:10.1142/S0218271818470107

    2018 doi

  69. [84]

    W. Hu , R. Barkana , and A. Gruzinov . , 85 0 (6): 0 1158--1161, Aug. 2000. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.1158

    2000 doi

  70. [85]

    L. K. Hunt et al. , 675: 0 A64, July 2023. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245805

    2023 doi

  71. [86]

    D. A. Hunter et al. Astron. J., 144: 0 134, Nov. 2012. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/144/5/134

    2012 doi

  72. [88]

    M. J. Jarvis et al. , Oct. 2025. doi:10.1093/mnras/staf1702

    2025 doi

  73. [89]

    Jiang et al

    F. Jiang et al. , 487 0 (4): 0 5272--5290, Aug. 2019. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1499

    2019 doi

  74. [90]

    Jiang et al

    F. Jiang et al. , 521 0 (3): 0 4630--4644, May 2023. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad705

    2023 doi

  75. [91]

    M. G. Jones et al. A&A, 609: 0 17, 1 2018. ISSN 14320746. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731448. URL https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018A http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/qcat?J/A+A/609/A17

    2018 doi

  76. [92]

    G. I. G. J \'o zsa , F. Kenn , U. Klein , and T. A. Oosterloo . Astron. Astrophys., 468 0 (2): 0 731--774, June 2007. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20066164

    2007 doi

  77. [93]

    A. Kalnajs . In Internal Kinematics and Dynamics of Galaxies, volume 100 of IAU Symposia , pages 87--88, Jan. 1983

    1983

  78. [96]

    Kazemi-Moridani et al

    A. Kazemi-Moridani et al. , 981 0 (2): 0 208, Mar. 2025. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad9f3f

    2025 doi

  79. [97]

    B. W. Keller and J. W. Wadsley . Astrophys. J., 835 0 (1): 0 L17, Jan. 2017. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/835/1/L17

    2017 doi

  80. [98]

    S. M. Kent . Astron. J., 91: 0 1301--1327, June 1986. doi:10.1086/114106

    1986 doi

  81. [99]

    S. M. Kent . Astron. J., 93: 0 816--832, Apr. 1987. doi:10.1086/114366

    1987 doi

  82. [100]

    Kretschmer et al

    M. Kretschmer et al. , 503 0 (4): 0 5238--5253, June 2021. doi:10.1093/mnras/stab833

    2021 doi

  83. [101]

    Kuzio de Naray , S

    R. Kuzio de Naray , S. S. McGaugh , W. J. G. de Blok , and A. Bosma . , 165 0 (2): 0 461--479, Aug. 2006. doi:10.1086/505345

    2006 doi

  84. [102]

    L. L. Lee et al. , 978 0 (1): 0 14, Jan. 2025. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad90b5

    2025 doi

  85. [103]

    F. Lelli . Nature Astronomy, 6: 0 35--47, Jan. 2022. doi:10.1038/s41550-021-01562-2

    2022 doi

  86. [104]

    F. Lelli . , 689: 0 L3, Sept. 2024. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202451289

    2024 doi

  87. [105]

    Lelli , F

    F. Lelli , F. Fraternali , and R. Sancisi . Astron. Astrophys., 516: 0 A11, June 2010. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913808

    2010 doi

  88. [106]

    Lelli , M

    F. Lelli , M. Verheijen , F. Fraternali , and R. Sancisi . Astron. Astrophys., 537: 0 A72, Jan. 2012. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117867

    2012 doi

  89. [108]

    Lelli , F

    F. Lelli , F. Fraternali , and M. Verheijen . Astron. Astrophys., 563: 0 A27, Mar. 2014 a . doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322658

    2014 doi

  90. [109]

    Lelli , M

    F. Lelli , M. Verheijen , and F. Fraternali . Astron. Astrophys., 566: 0 A71, June 2014 b . doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322657

    2014 doi

  91. [110]

    Lelli , S

    F. Lelli , S. S. McGaugh , and J. M. Schombert . Astron. J., 152 0 (6): 0 157, Dec. 2016 a . doi:10.3847/0004-6256/152/6/157

    2016 doi

  92. [111]

    Lelli , S

    F. Lelli , S. S. McGaugh , and J. M. Schombert . Astrophys. J., 816 0 (1): 0 L14, Jan. 2016 b . doi:10.3847/2041-8205/816/1/L14

    2016 doi

  93. [112]

    Lelli , S

    F. Lelli , S. S. McGaugh , J. M. Schombert , and M. S. Pawlowski . Astrophys. J., 827 0 (1): 0 L19, Aug. 2016 c . doi:10.3847/2041-8205/827/1/L19

    2016 doi

  94. [113]

    Lelli , S

    F. Lelli , S. S. McGaugh , and J. M. Schombert . , 468 0 (1): 0 L68--L71, June 2017 a . doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slx031

    2017 doi

  95. [114]

    Lelli , S

    F. Lelli , S. S. McGaugh , J. M. Schombert , and M. S. Pawlowski . Astrophys. J., 836 0 (2): 0 152, Feb. 2017 b . doi:10.3847/1538-4357/836/2/152

    2017 doi

  96. [115]

    Lelli et al

    F. Lelli et al. , 479 0 (4): 0 5440--5447, Oct. 2018. doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1795

    2018 doi

  97. [117]

    Lelli et al

    F. Lelli et al. , 672: 0 A106, Apr. 2023. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245105

    2023 doi

  98. [118]

    P. Li , F. Lelli , S. McGaugh , and J. Schombert . Astron. Astrophys., 615: 0 A3, July 2018. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732547

    2018 doi

  99. [119]

    P. Li , F. Lelli , S. McGaugh , and J. Schombert . Astrophys. J.S, 247 0 (1): 0 31, Mar. 2020. doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ab700e

    2020 doi

  100. [120]

    Li and L

    Q. Li and L. Modesto . Gravitation and Cosmology, 26 0 (2): 0 99--117, Aug. 2020. doi:10.1134/S0202289320020085

    2020 doi

  101. [121]

    Lin et al

    L. Lin et al. , 693: 0 A91, Jan. 2025. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202450814

    2025 doi

  102. [122]

    A. D. Ludlow et al. Phys. Rev. Lett., 118 0 (16): 0 161103, Apr. 2017. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.118.161103

    2017 doi

  103. [124]

    P. E. Mancera Pi \ n a et al. , 514 0 (3): 0 3329--3348, Aug. 2022. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1508

    2022 doi

  104. [125]

    P. E. Mancera Pi \ n a et al. , 699: 0 A311, July 2025. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202554381

    2025 doi

  105. [127]

    Marasco et al

    A. Marasco et al. Astron. Astrophys., 631: 0 A50, Nov. 2019. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936338

    2019 doi

  106. [128]

    A. C. Mayer , A. F. Teklu , K. Dolag , and R.-S. Remus . , 518 0 (1): 0 257--269, Jan. 2023. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3017

    2023 doi

  107. [129]

    S. S. McGaugh . Astron. J., 143: 0 40, Feb. 2012. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/143/2/40

    2012 doi

  108. [130]

    S. S. McGaugh and J. M. Schombert . , 148 0 (5): 0 77, Nov. 2014. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/148/5/77

    2014 doi

  109. [131]

    S. S. McGaugh , J. M. Schombert , G. D. Bothun , and W. J. G. de Blok . Astrophys. J., 533: 0 L99--L102, Apr. 2000. doi:10.1086/312628

    2000 doi

  110. [132]

    S. S. McGaugh , F. Lelli , and J. M. Schombert . Phys. Rev. Lett., 117 0 (20): 0 201101, Nov. 2016. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.117.201101

    2016 doi

  111. [133]

    A. T. McNichols et al. Astrophys. J., 832 0 (1): 0 89, Nov. 2016. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/832/1/89

    2016 doi

  112. [134]

    K. B. W. McQuinn et al. Astrophys. J., 721: 0 297--317, Sept. 2010. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/721/1/297

    2010 doi

  113. [135]

    G. R. Meurer , C. Carignan , S. F. Beaulieu , and K. C. Freeman . Astron. J., 111: 0 1551--+, Apr. 1996. doi:10.1086/117895

    1996 doi

  114. [136]

    Meyer et al

    M. Meyer et al. , 34: 0 52, Nov. 2017. doi:10.1017/pasa.2017.31

    2017 doi

  115. [137]

    M. Milgrom . Astrophys. J., 270: 0 365--370, July 1983 a . doi:10.1086/161130

    1983 doi

  116. [138]

    M. Milgrom . Astrophys. J., 270: 0 371--389, July 1983 b . doi:10.1086/161131

    1983 doi

  117. [139]

    M. Milgrom . Annals of Physics, 229 0 (2): 0 384--415, Feb. 1994. doi:10.1006/aphy.1994.1012

    1994

  118. [140]

    M. Milgrom. Scholarpedia, 9 0 (6): 0 31410, 2014. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.31410. revision \#196839

    2014 doi

  119. [141]

    Mistele , S

    T. Mistele , S. McGaugh , and S. Hossenfelder . , 664: 0 A40, Aug. 2022. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243216

    2022 doi

  120. [142]

    Muni et al

    C. Muni et al. , 536 0 (1): 0 314--323, Jan. 2025. doi:10.1093/mnras/stae2748

    2025 doi

  121. [143]

    Murugeshan et al

    C. Murugeshan et al. , 41: 0 e088, Nov. 2024. doi:10.1017/pasa.2024.91

    2024 doi

  122. [144]

    A. P. Naik et al. , 489 0 (1): 0 771--787, Oct. 2019. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2131

    2019 doi

  123. [145]

    J. F. Navarro , C. S. Frenk , and S. D. M. White . Astrophys. J., 462: 0 563, May 1996. doi:10.1086/177173

    1996 doi

  124. [146]

    Nestor Shachar et al

    A. Nestor Shachar et al. , 944 0 (1): 0 78, Feb. 2023. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aca9cf

    2023 doi

  125. [147]

    Noordermeer et al

    E. Noordermeer et al. Astron. Astrophys., 442: 0 137--157, Oct. 2005. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053172

    2005 doi

  126. [148]

    Ntampaka et al

    M. Ntampaka et al. , 803 0 (2): 0 50, Apr. 2015. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/803/2/50

    2015 doi

  127. [149]

    Obreschkow et al

    D. Obreschkow et al. , 703 0 (2): 0 1890--1903, Oct. 2009. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/703/2/1890

    1903 doi

  128. [150]

    J. C. O'Brien , K. C. Freeman , and P. C. van der Kruit . Astron. Astrophys., 515: 0 A62, June 2010. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200912567

    2010 doi

  129. [151]

    Oh et al

    S.-H. Oh et al. Astron. J., 149 0 (6): 0 180, June 2015. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/149/6/180

    2015 doi

  130. [152]

    R. P. Olling . , 110: 0 591, Aug. 1995. doi:10.1086/117545

    1995 doi

  131. [154]

    Oosterloo , F

    T. Oosterloo , F. Fraternali , and R. Sancisi . , 134 0 (3): 0 1019, Sept. 2007. doi:10.1086/520332

    2007 doi

  132. [155]

    Ott et al

    J. Ott et al. Astron. J., 144: 0 123, Oct. 2012. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/144/4/123

    2012 doi

  133. [156]

    Panpanich and P

    S. Panpanich and P. Burikham . , 98 0 (6): 0 064008, Sept. 2018. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.98.064008

    2018 doi

  134. [157]

    Paranjape and R

    A. Paranjape and R. K. Sheth . , 517 0 (1): 0 130--139, Nov. 2022. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2689

    2022 doi

  135. [158]

    Persic , P

    M. Persic , P. Salucci , and F. Stel . , 281 0 (1): 0 27--47, July 1996. doi:10.1093/mnras/278.1.27

    1996 doi

  136. [159]

    Petersen and F

    J. Petersen and F. Lelli . , 636: 0 A56, Apr. 2020. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936964

    2020 doi

  137. [160]

    T. E. Pickering , C. D. Impey , J. H. van Gorkom , and G. D. Bothun . , 114: 0 1858, Nov. 1997. doi:10.1086/118611

    1997 doi

  138. [161]

    Pillepich et al

    A. Pillepich et al. , 490 0 (3): 0 3196--3233, Dec. 2019. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2338

    2019 doi

  139. [162]

    A. A. Ponomareva et al. , 474 0 (4): 0 4366--4384, Mar. 2018. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx3066

    2018 doi

  140. [163]

    A. A. Ponomareva et al. , 508 0 (1): 0 1195--1205, Nov. 2021. doi:10.1093/mnras/stab2654

    2021 doi

  141. [165]

    L. Posti . Research Notes of the American Astronomical Society, 6 0 (11): 0 233, Nov. 2022. doi:10.3847/2515-5172/aca0df

    2022 doi

  142. [166]

    Powell et al

    D. Powell et al. , 501 0 (1): 0 515--530, Feb. 2021. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2740

    2021 doi

  143. [167]

    S. H. Price et al. , 922 0 (2): 0 143, Dec. 2021. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac22ad

    2021 doi

  144. [168]

    Puglisi et al

    A. Puglisi et al. , 524 0 (2): 0 2814--2835, Sept. 2023. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad1966

    2023 doi

  145. [170]

    T. Ren , A. Kwa , M. Kaplinghat , and H.-B. Yu . Physical Review X, 9 0 (3): 0 031020, July 2019. doi:10.1103/PhysRevX.9.031020

    2019 doi

  146. [171]

    Rhee et al

    G. Rhee et al. , 617 0 (2): 0 1059--1076, Dec. 2004. doi:10.1086/425565

    2004 doi

  147. [172]

    Rhee et al

    J. Rhee et al. , 518 0 (3): 0 4646--4671, Jan. 2023. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3065

    2023 doi

  148. [173]

    Rizzo et al

    F. Rizzo et al. , 584 0 (7820): 0 201--204, Aug. 2020. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2572-6

    2020 doi

  149. [174]

    Rizzo et al

    F. Rizzo et al. , 679: 0 A129, Nov. 2023. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346444

    2023 doi

  150. [175]

    V. H. Robles et al. , 472 0 (3): 0 2945--2954, Dec. 2017. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2253

    2017 doi

  151. [176]

    D. H. Rogstad , I. A. Lockhart , and M. C. H. Wright . Astrophys. J., 193: 0 309--319, Oct. 1974. doi:10.1086/153164

    1974 doi

  152. [177]

    A. B. Romeo . , 256 0 (2): 0 307--320, May 1992. doi:10.1093/mnras/256.2.307

    1992 doi

  153. [178]

    V. C. Rubin , W. K. Ford , Jr., and N. Thonnard . Astrophys. J., 225: 0 L107--L111, Nov. 1978. doi:10.1086/182804

    1978 doi

  154. [179]

    L. V. Sales , A. Wetzel , and A. Fattahi . Nature Astronomy, 6: 0 897--910, June 2022. doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01689-w

    2022 doi

  155. [180]

    R. Sancisi . In Dark Matter in Galaxies, volume 220 of IAU Symposia , page 233, July 2004

    2004

  156. [181]

    R. H. Sanders . The Dark Matter Problem: A Historical Perspective , 2010

    2010

  157. [183]

    Schombert and S

    J. Schombert and S. McGaugh . Pub. Astron. Soc. Austr., 31: 0 e036, Sept. 2014. doi:10.1017/Pub. Astron. Soc. Austr..2014.32

    2014 doi

  158. [185]

    Shelest and F

    A. Shelest and F. Lelli . , 641: 0 A31, Sept. 2020. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038184

    2020 doi

  159. [186]

    F. J. Sicking . The thickness of the HI gas layer in spiral galaxies . PhD thesis, -, Dec. 1997

    1997

  160. [187]

    J. D. Simon , A. D. Bolatto , A. Leroy , and L. Blitz . Astrophys. J., 596 0 (2): 0 957--981, Oct. 2003. doi:10.1086/378200

    2003 doi

  161. [188]

    J. D. Simon et al. Astrophys. J., 621 0 (2): 0 757--776, Mar. 2005. doi:10.1086/427684

    2005 doi

  162. [189]

    Skordis and T

    C. Skordis and T. Z o s \' s nik. Phys. Rev. Lett., 127: 0 161302, Oct 2021. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.161302

    2021 doi

  163. [190]

    M. D. Smith et al. , 485 0 (3): 0 4359--4374, May 2019. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz625

    2019 doi

  164. [191]

    Spekkens and J

    K. Spekkens and J. A. Sellwood . Astrophys. J., 664 0 (1): 0 204--214, July 2007. doi:10.1086/518471

    2007 doi

  165. [192]

    D. N. Spergel and P. J. Steinhardt . , 84 0 (17): 0 3760--3763, Apr. 2000. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.3760

    2000 doi

  166. [193]

    Spitzer , Lyman

    J. Spitzer , Lyman. Astrophys. J., 95: 0 329, May 1942. doi:10.1086/144407

    1942 doi

  167. [194]

    J. P. Stott et al. , 457 0 (2): 0 1888--1904, Apr. 2016. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw129

    1904 doi

  168. [195]

    R. A. Swaters , T. S. van Albada , J. M. van der Hulst , and R. Sancisi . Astron. Astrophys., 390: 0 829--861, Aug. 2002. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20011755

    2002 doi

  169. [196]

    R. A. Swaters , R. Sancisi , T. S. van Albada , and J. M. van der Hulst . Astron. Astrophys., 493: 0 871--892, Jan. 2009. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810516

    2009 doi

  170. [197]

    R. A. Swaters , R. Sancisi , J. M. van der Hulst , and T. S. van Albada . , 425 0 (3): 0 2299--2308, Sept. 2012. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21599.x

    2012

  171. [198]

    R. A. Swaters et al. Astrophys. J., 797 0 (2): 0 L28, Dec. 2014. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/797/2/L28

    2014 doi

  172. [199]

    A. L. Tiley et al. , 485 0 (1): 0 934--960, May 2019. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz428

    2019 doi

  173. [200]

    Trachternach et al

    C. Trachternach et al. Astron. J., 136 0 (6): 0 2720--2760, Dec. 2008. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/136/6/2720

    2008 doi

  174. [201]

    T. S. van Albada and R. Sancisi . Royal Society of London Philosophical Transactions Series A, 320: 0 447--464, Dec. 1986

    1986

  175. [202]

    T. S. van Albada , J. N. Bahcall , K. Begeman , and R. Sancisi . Astrophys. J., 295: 0 305--313, Aug. 1985. doi:10.1086/163375

    1985 doi

  176. [203]

    M. A. W. Verheijen . Astrophys. J., 563: 0 694--715, Dec. 2001. doi:10.1086/323887

    2001 doi

  177. [204]

    M. A. W. Verheijen and R. Sancisi . Astron. Astrophys., 370: 0 765--867, May 2001. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20010090

    2001 doi

  178. [205]

    Villanueva-Domingo et al

    P. Villanueva-Domingo et al. , 935 0 (1): 0 30, Aug. 2022. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac7aa3

    2022 doi

  179. [206]

    A. A. V a r a s teanu et al. , 541 0 (3): 0 2366--2392, Aug. 2025. doi:10.1093/mnras/staf1079

    2025 doi

  180. [207]

    Walter et al

    F. Walter et al. Astron. J., 136: 0 2563, Dec. 2008. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/136/6/2563

    2008 doi

  181. [208]

    Wang et al

    J. Wang et al. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 460 0 (2): 0 2143--2151, Aug. 2016. doi:10.1093/Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc./stw1099

    2016 doi

  182. [209]

    M. S. Warren , P. J. Quinn , J. K. Salmon , and W. H. Zurek . , 399: 0 405, Nov. 1992. doi:10.1086/171937

    1992 doi

  183. [210]

    Westmeier et al

    T. Westmeier et al. , 39: 0 e058, Nov. 2022. doi:10.1017/pasa.2022.50

    2022 doi

  184. [211]

    Wisnioski et al

    E. Wisnioski et al. , 886 0 (2): 0 124, Dec. 2019. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab4db8

    2019 doi

  185. [212]

    R. L. Workman et al. Progress of Theoretical and Experimental Physics, 2022 0 (8): 0 083C01, Aug. 2022. doi:10.1093/ptep/ptac097

    2022 doi

  186. [213]

    Xi et al

    H. Xi et al. , 966 0 (2): 0 L36, May 2024. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad4357

    2024 doi

Pith tools

Reviewed August 10, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.