Breathing Fire: Hot Dust in the Big Three Dragons at z = 7.15

Akio K. Inoue; Andreas Faisst; Anita Zanella; Anton M. Koekemoer; Chian-Chou Chen; Elisabete da Cunha; Giovanni Zamorani; Gitanjali Rajulal; Hanae Inami; Hiddo S. B. Algera

REVIEW 3 major objections 4 minor 297 references

Breathing Fire: Hot Dust in the Big Three Dragons at z = 7.15

T0 review · 3 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-12 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read The z=7.15 galaxy pair Big Three Dragons hosts dust heated to about 78 K, and a modified blackbody fit implies 94 percent of its star formation is obscured, making it one of the most luminous hidden starbursts known at z>7.

desk verdict New bands, honest analysis, but the 'hot dust' label rests on a free-beta fit; the system is still IR-luminous and heavily obscured. read the letter →

arxiv 2608.08015 v1 pith:XXEYRZ5Y submitted 2026-08-08 astro-ph.GA

Gitanjali Rajulal , Hiddo S. B. Algera , Yuma Sugahara , Tom J. L. C. Bakx , Takuya Hashimoto , Suzuka Arai , Akio K. Inoue , Ikki Mitsuhashi

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Manuel Aravena Karin Cescon Chian-Chou Chen Elisabete da Cunha Pratika Dayal Ilse De Looze Andreas Faisst Yoshinobu Fudamoto Rodrigo Herrera-Camus Hanae Inami Anton M. Koekemoer Shoichiro Mizukoshi Michael Romano Lucie Rowland Sander Schouws Renske Smit Livia Vallini Wei-Hao Wang Giovanni Zamorani Anita Zanella

This is my paper · ORCID

classification astro-ph.GA

keywords galaxies:high-redshiftevolutionsubmillimeter:galaxiesdusttemperatureobscuredstarformationLyman-breakepochofreionizationALMA

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper argues that the Big Three Dragons, a merging pair of star-forming galaxies seen at redshift z=7.15, is a genuinely hot and heavily dust-obscured system: new ALMA observations at 0.45 mm and 2.2 mm, combined with earlier detections at 0.73-1.32 mm, imply a global dust temperature of $T_d=78^{+35}_{-23}$ K, an infrared luminosity of $\log(L_{\rm IR}/L_\odot)=12.32^{+0.43}_{-0.41}$, and an obscured fraction of $f_{\rm obs}=0.94^{+0.04}_{-0.09}$. If this is right, the bright end of the UV luminosity function at $z>7$ is not as clean a window on star formation as UV surveys assume: much of the star formation in at least some bright Lyman-break galaxies is hidden by warm dust. The result matters because cosmic star-formation histories are largely reconstructed from ultraviolet light, and dust corrections depend sensitively on the temperature assumed for the dust.

What carries the argument

The central object is a single-temperature modified blackbody (MBB) fit to the dust SED, $S_\nu = \frac{1+z}{d_L^2} M_d \kappa_0 (\nu/\nu_0)^{\beta_{\rm IR}} [B_\nu(T_{d,z}) - B_\nu(T_{\rm CMB,z})]$, with optically thin dust, $\kappa_0=10.41$ cm$^2$/g at $\nu_0=1900$ GHz, and CMB heating and attenuation included. The fit takes the ALMA flux densities in Bands 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, plus Band 3 and Herschel upper limits, and constrains $T_d$, $M_d$, $\beta_{\rm IR}$, and the integrated $L_{\rm IR}$ simultaneously through MCMC posterior sampling. The IRX-$\beta_{\rm UV}$ comparison and the $T_d$--$\Sigma_{\rm SFR}$ diagram then translate those fitted quantities into statements about dust geometry, possible optical thickness, and the incidence of such systems.

What would settle it

Observe the Big Three Dragons in ALMA Band 10, probing rest wavelengths near 40 um, with enough sensitivity to measure or tightly limit its flux. The optically thin 78 K modified blackbody predicts a steeply rising SED into this band; a measurement well below that prediction, or a resolved turnover, would show that the dust becomes optically thick near the peak and that the quoted temperature is not the intrinsic dust temperature. A detection matching the extrapolation would support the hot-dust interpretation.

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Extended reading notes

Core claim

The paper's central claim is that the Big Three Dragons is a genuinely hot, heavily obscured system at $z=7.15$. From a single-temperature optically thin modified blackbody fit to ALMA Bands 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, the global dust temperature is $T_d = 78^{+35}_{-23}$ K, with $\log(M_d/M_\odot)=6.85^{+0.33}_{-0.27}$, $\beta_{\rm IR}=1.47^{+0.46}_{-0.35}$, and $\log(L_{\rm IR}/L_\odot)=12.32^{+0.43}_{-0.41}$. This yields a total star formation rate $\mathrm{SFR}_{\rm UV+IR}=267^{+418}_{-153}\,M_\odot\,\mathrm{yr}^{-1}$ and an obscured fraction $f_{\rm obs}=0.94^{+0.04}_{-0.09}$, placing the system well above the low-redshift obscured-fraction--stellar-mass relation. The resolved Bands 6, 8, and 9 data show both Lyman-break components are hot ($T_d\approx67$--$84$ K) and heavily obscured ($f_{\rm obs}\approx0.88$--$0.95$); the Western component lies roughly one dex above the canonical IRX-$\beta_{\rm UV}$ relations, implying patchy dust, while the Eastern component is consistent with a Calzetti- or SMC-like foreground screen. If correct, the system is among the most infrared-luminous galaxies known at $z>7$, and a single such source already constitutes a substantial fraction of the star formation budget of UV-bright galaxies at $7<z<7.5$.

Load-bearing premise

The dust is assumed to be optically thin at every observed wavelength, so if the compact Eastern component is actually optically thick, the quoted temperatures, luminosities, and obscured fractions would all shift.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

A single system like this can account for roughly 20--50 percent of the star formation budget of UV-bright ($M_{\rm UV}<-21.5$) galaxies at $7<z<7.5$ in the COSMOS field, depending on the adopted UV luminosity function.
The Big Three Dragons becomes a second, more luminous $z>7$ example alongside the similarly hot galaxy MACS0416-Y1, suggesting hot dust is a real phenomenon at these epochs rather than a unique object.
The extremely high obscured fraction, $f_{\rm obs}\approx0.94$, places the system far above the low-redshift obscured-fraction--stellar-mass relation, showing that compact merger-driven starbursts can hide almost all of their star formation.
The Western component's offset from the IRX-$\beta_{\rm UV}$ relation indicates that simple dust-screen geometries are insufficient; patchy or clumpy dust must be included when interpreting high-redshift dust attenuation.
If Big Three Dragons-like systems are not extremely rare, the obscured cosmic star-formation rate density at $z\sim7$ could be substantially higher than UV-only estimates suggest.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

The paper does not state this, but its temperature-dependent luminosity argument implies that single-band high-redshift surveys fixing dust temperature near $\sim35$--$50$ K will systematically underestimate infrared luminosities and obscured fractions for hot systems, so part of the apparent decline of obscured star formation beyond cosmic noon may be a temperature-selection effect.
The paper itself notes that the Eastern clump could be optically thick; if that is confirmed, the quoted $T_d$ would be a lower limit, while the infrared luminosity would remain roughly unchanged, so the qualitative conclusion of a luminous, heavily obscured starburst would survive.
A natural extension is to target compact, UV-bright major mergers at $z>7$ with dual-band millimeter photometry on the SED peak and Rayleigh-Jeans tail; the paper's Monte Carlo calculation implies that if more than about one in ten such systems is Big Three Dragons-like, obscured star formation would dominate the bright end of the UV luminosity function at that epoch.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

The new ALMA Band 4 and 9 data are real and useful. Two extra points on the dust SED of the Big Three Dragons, including rest-frame ~55 micron coverage, make this the best-constrained dust SED of any z>7 LBG after MACS0416-Y1. The analysis is careful: Herschel upper limits are included, resolved clump fits are shown, and the paper openly tests the beta=2.0 case in Appendix D. This is not a sloppy paper.

What is robust: under both the free-beta and fixed-beta fits, the system is IR-luminous (log L_IR ~12.1-12.3 Lsun) and heavily obscured (f_obs ~0.89-0.94). The total SFR exceeds what the UV alone would suggest, and the Western clump sits far above the IRX-beta_UV relation. Those conclusions survive the modeling choices.

The soft spot is the headline "hot dust" claim. The Band 9 detections are only ~2-3 sigma after calibration (1162 +- 452 uJy global; component fluxes ~2.0 and ~2.8 sigma), and Band 9 does not fully sample the SED peak. The free-beta fit returns beta_IR = 1.47 +- 0.46 and T_d = 78 K, but the paper's own Appendix D shows that fixing beta=2.0 gives T_d = 57 +- 15 K, below the 60 K threshold they define as hot. So "hot" is prior-dependent, not a measurement. The optically thick possibility discussed in Section 5.2.3 would push T_d up, but that is an additional assumption, not confirmation. The paper flags all this, yet the abstract and conclusions lean on the 78 K value. The resolved clump temperatures have similar fragility.

The SFRD implications are explicitly an extrapolation with an assumed incidence rate x_B3D. That section is transparent about its assumptions and does not overreach, so I would not penalize it heavily.

For peer review: this deserves a serious referee. The data are new, the analysis is reproducible in structure, and the interpretation is honest. The main revision should be to move the fixed-beta fit into the main text or soften the "hot dust" language, so that readers see the temperature is conditional on the emissivity index. I would cite this for the new fluxes and the SFRD framework, but not as proof of a hot dust population at z>7.

Recommendation: send to review, with the expectation that the abstract be recalibrated to match the data's actual constraining power.

Referee Report

3 major / 4 minor

Summary. This paper presents new ALMA Band 4 and Band 9 continuum observations of the z=7.15 Lyman-break galaxy system 'Big Three Dragons', combines them with archival Band 3, 6, 7, and 8 data, and fits single-temperature optically thin modified blackbodies to the global and resolved East/West SEDs. From the fiducial free-β fit the authors infer a global dust temperature of T_d = 78^{+35}_{-23} K, a dust mass log(M_d/M_sun) = 6.85^{+0.33}_{-0.27}, and an infrared luminosity log(L_IR/L_sun) = 12.32^{+0.43}_{-0.41}, which implies a nearly complete obscured fraction f_obs = 0.94. The paper additionally places the two resolved components on the IRX-β_UV plane, discusses the T_d-Sigma_SFR relation, and makes a Monte-Carlo estimate of the contribution of such highly obscured UV-bright galaxies to the obscured star formation rate density at z~7.

Significance. The observations are novel and valuable: Band 9 (rest-frame ~55 micron) data for a z>7 LBG are rare, and the combination with Band 4 (rest-frame ~270 micron) data offers one of the few multi-band dust SED constraints at these redshifts. If the hot-dust interpretation is correct, the Big Three Dragons would be among the most IR-luminous and most obscured galaxies known at z>7, with direct implications for the obscured fraction of star formation in the epoch of reionization. The paper is honest in reporting alternative fits (Appendix D) and caveats about optically thick dust (Section 5.2.3), and the homogeneous reduction of all bands is a strength. However, as argued in the major comments, the headline quantitative claims are conditional on an unconstrained emissivity index and on the optically thin assumption, and the new detections themselves are of modest significance once calibration errors are included. The paper is therefore more useful as a demonstration of what is feasible and as a target for future follow-up than as a secure measurement of hot dust.

major comments (3)

[§4, Appendix D, Eq. (1)] The claim that the Big Three Dragons hosts 'hot' dust (T_d ≈ 78 K) is not robust to the adopted emissivity index. With the standard β_IR = 2.0 fixed, the paper's own fit (Appendix D, Table D1) gives T_d = 57^{+15}_{-13} K, whose median falls below the paper's own definition of hot (T_d ≳ 60 K, footnote on p. 3). Since the free-β fit returns β_IR = 1.47^{+0.46}_{-0.35}, fully consistent with 2.0, the data cannot distinguish between a 78 K solution and a 57 K solution. The abstract's statement that the MBB fit 'robustly constrains' the dust temperature and the Section 5.1.1 wording that the observations 'strongly indicate' hot dust are therefore too strong. I recommend reporting the temperature as T_d ≈ 78^{+35}_{-23} K under a free-β model, with the β=2.0 solution presented as an equally viable interpretation, and moving the headline claim from 'hot dust' to a statement that the dust temperature is consistent with hot and with standard-cold solutions, while the IR luminosity is high either way.
[§2, Table 1, Table 2] The significance of the new Band 9 detections is overstated. Table 1 lists a global Band 9 flux of 1162 ± 452 μJy from the aperture noise alone; when the 20% calibration error added in Section 3.1 is included in quadrature, the detection is at ≈2.6σ. The two resolved clumps (381 ± 191 and 532 ± 191 μJy in Table 2) fall to ≈2.0σ and ≈2.8σ, respectively. Because the rest-frame ~55 μm point is the only constraint on the Wien side of the SED, these marginal detections cannot carry the weight placed on them in the temperature and luminosity inference. Please report the calibration-inclusive significances in the abstract and body, and adjust the language in Section 2 ('clearly detected') accordingly.
[§3.2, §5.2.3] The fiducial physical parameters (T_d, M_d, L_IR, f_obs) are all derived under the optically thin MBB assumption of Eq. (1). The paper acknowledges in §3.2 that the optically thick case would yield higher temperatures, and in §5.2.3 that the Eastern clump could be optically thick, but the abstract and conclusions still present L_IR = 10^12.32 L_sun and f_obs = 0.94 as firm numbers. The statement in §5.2.3 that optically thick dust would 'not significantly affect the infrared luminosity' is not demonstrated with a fit; the luminosity is defined as the integral of the optically thin model. Since the data cannot constrain the optical depth (§3.2), the reported L_IR and f_obs should be explicitly labeled as optically thin-model values, and the optically thick alternative should be carried through the main discussion rather than being confined to a caveat.

minor comments (4)

[§6 bullet 2] The conclusions bullet gives SFR_UV+IR = 267^{+419}_{-154} M_sun/yr, while Table 3 and the abstract give 267^{+418}_{-153}; this numerical inconsistency should be corrected.
[§5.3] The statement that a single B3D-like galaxy accounts for 20–50% of all star formation at the bright end (M_UV < -21.5) is a definitional consequence of assigning f_obs = 0.95 to one object and zero to the rest; please add a caveat that this calculation does not constrain the true incidence rate, and that the two adopted UV LFs differ by a factor of ~3 in N_LBG, which is the dominant uncertainty in the shaded band.
[Appendix A] The tapered 0.8'' Band 9 image yields a peak S/N of 4.0σ, a value that is still modest; the main text should state this value alongside the natural-weighting significances, or the abstract should clarify that the quoted 3.7/3.5σ values do not include the tapering improvement.
[§5.1.1] The paper's 'hot' threshold is arbitrary and acknowledged as such in the footnote on p. 3, but later sections (e.g., §5.1.1, §6) use 'hot' as a factual category; consider consistently using 'hot (as defined here)' or replacing 'strongly indicate' with 'are consistent with' in the abstract and conclusions.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No circularity: the dust temperature and luminosity are direct MBB fits to new ALMA fluxes; interpretive quantities are derived outputs, not fitted inputs.

full rationale

The central claims are not circular. The dust temperature T_d = 78 K and L_IR = 10^12.32 L_sun are obtained by fitting the modified blackbody of Eq. 1 to measured ALMA fluxes (Bands 4, 6, 7, 8, 9; Table 1) plus published upper limits, with stated priors on M_d, T_d, and beta_IR. L_IR is then computed by integrating MBBs drawn from the fitting posterior, so it is a derived quantity rather than an input. The obscured fraction f_obs = 0.94 is computed from the fitted SFR_IR combined with an external UV SFR from Prieto-Jiménez et al. (2025), using a standard SFR conversion; it is not a fitted parameter renamed as a result. The IRX-beta and T_dust-Sigma_SFR comparisons use externally measured UV slopes, sizes, and literature relations, and the SFRD exercise explicitly parameterizes the incidence rate x_B3D and adopts f_obs = 0.95 as a stated assumption, not as a prediction derived from the data. The paper's own Appendix D shows that fixing beta_IR = 2.0 yields T_d = 57 K, which is a model-dependence caveat the authors disclose, not a circular reduction. Self-citations (e.g., the opacity coefficient, the beta prior, the SFR conversion) are standard values or supporting data and do not carry the logical weight of the derivation. No step in the claimed chain is equivalent to its own input by construction.

Assumptions & free parameters 4 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 1 invented entities

The central measurement rests on the optically thin, single-temperature MBB model with a literature opacity coefficient and a Gaussian prior on beta_IR. The SFRD extrapolation additionally depends on the assumed incidence rate of B3D-like galaxies and the choice of UV luminosity function. No new entities are invented, but several domain assumptions about high-redshift dust are taken from prior work without independent verification in this paper.

free parameters (4)

beta_IR (dust emissivity index) = 1.47^{+0.46}_{-0.35} (free in fiducial fit)
The MBB fit uses a Gaussian prior with mean 1.8 and sigma 0.5, and the posterior value is fitted to the data. The temperature-luminosity results are degenerate with beta_IR, as shown by the fixed beta=2.0 fit giving T_d=57 K.
T_d (dust temperature) = 78^{+35}_{-23} K (global)
This is the main fitted parameter of the MBB model, inferred from the photometry. It is not a free parameter in the sense of being tuned ad hoc, but it is fitted to the data.
M_d (dust mass) = log(M_d/M_sun)=6.85^{+0.33}_{-0.27}
Dust mass is a fitted parameter of the MBB model that depends on the assumed opacity coefficient. It is degenerate with T_d and beta_IR, and is derived from the same photometry.
x_B3D (incidence rate of Big Three Dragons-like galaxies) = 0.02-0.06 if single galaxy in COSMOS; scanned from 0 to 1
In the SFRD extrapolation (Section 5.3), x_B3D is not measured. The paper assumes a fraction of UV-bright galaxies are heavily obscured and scans this value, so the resulting obscured SFRD is proportional to this assumption.

assumptions (5)

standard math Standard Lambda-CDM cosmology with H0=70 km/s/Mpc, Omega_m=0.30, Omega_Lambda=0.70.
Stated in Section 1. Used to compute luminosity distance and hence luminosities.
domain assumption Dust emission is optically thin at all observed wavelengths.
Section 3.2: 'we assume the emission is optically thin'. The paper acknowledges that optically thick dust would yield higher temperatures and that the opacity turnover cannot be constrained.
domain assumption Single-temperature modified blackbody adequately represents the dust SED.
Section 3.2: the MBB function of Eq. 1 is used. The paper does not test multi-temperature models, and the data are sparse, so this assumption is not independently verified.
domain assumption The dust opacity coefficient kappa_0 = 10.41 cm^2/g at nu_0 = 1900 GHz.
Adopted from literature (Sommovigo et al. 2022a; Algera et al. 2024a). The dust mass and luminosity depend on this value, and it is not independently measured for this galaxy.
domain assumption The UV luminosity functions of Bowler et al. (2017) and Harikane et al. (2025) describe the UV-bright galaxy population in COSMOS at z ~ 7.
Used in Section 5.3 to estimate the number of UV-bright LBGs and hence the incidence rate of B3D-like galaxies. The two LFs give N_LBG ~ 18 and ~ 59, differing by a factor of 3, so this assumption introduces substantial uncertainty.

invented entities (1)

None
purpose: No new physical entities are introduced.
The paper does not postulate any new particle, force, or physical mechanism. It is an observational study of known phenomena.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Breathing Fire: Hot Dust in the Big Three Dragons at z = 7.15." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/XXEYRZ5Y

@misc{pith2026260808015,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Breathing Fire: Hot Dust in the Big Three Dragons at z = 7.15},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/XXEYRZ5Y}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2608.08015}
}

abstract

We present new Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Band 9 ($\lambda_\mathrm{obs} = 0.45\,\mathrm{mm}$) and 4 ($\lambda_\mathrm{obs} = 2.2\,\mathrm{mm}$) observations towards the Big Three Dragons, a pair of merging Lyman-break galaxies (LBGs) at $z=7.15$. The system was previously detected in ALMA Bands 6, 7 and 8 ($\lambda_\mathrm{obs} = 0.73 - 1.32\,\mathrm{mm}$), which, combined with our new observations, allows us to robustly constrain its dust temperature and obscured SFR. The unresolved Band 4 observations yield a $3.5\sigma$ detection, and the $0.4''$ Band 9 observations detect the Eastern and Western LBGs at $3.7$ and $3.5\sigma$, respectively. Through modified blackbody fitting, we infer a global dust temperature of $T_d = 78_{-23}^{+35}\,\mathrm{K}$ for the system, which implies a high IR luminosity of $\log(L_\mathrm{IR}/L_\odot) = 12.32_{-0.41}^{+0.43}$. This makes the Big Three Dragons one of the most IR-luminous systems known at $z>7$, with a total $\mathrm{SFR}_\mathrm{UV+IR} = 267_{-153}^{+418}\,M_\odot\,\mathrm{yr}^{-1}$ that is almost completely obscured ($f_\mathrm{obs} = 0.94_{-0.09}^{+0.04}$). Using resolved ALMA observations in Bands 6, 8 and 9, we confirm both LBGs have hot dust temperatures ($T_d \approx 67 - 84\,\mathrm{K}$) and correspondingly high obscured fractions ($f_\mathrm{obs} \approx 0.88 -0.95$). We find the Western LBG to fall $\sim1\,\mathrm{dex}$ above the canonical IRX-$\beta_\mathrm{UV}$ relation, suggesting patchy dust obscuration. The compact Eastern component, on the other hand, is consistent with a Calzetti- or SMC-like dust screen within the uncertainties. Together with the similarly hot dust temperature recently reported for the $z=8.31$ galaxy MACS0416-Y1, our results suggest a non-negligible fraction of star formation at the bright end of the UV luminosity function is highly dust-obscured, even at $z\gtrsim7$.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2608.08015 by the authors.

**Figure 1.** Cutouts (6 ′′ × 6 ′′) of the ALMA Band 3, 4 and 6 through 9 continuum observations of the Big Three Dragons. Solid contours (black) are drawn from 2𝜎 to 9𝜎, increasing in steps of 1𝜎. Dashed contours denote negative values, drawn from −2𝜎 downward in steps of −1𝜎. The Big Three Dragons remains undetected in Band 3, and is detected in all other bands at ≥ 3𝜎 significance. Aperture photometry was used to extract the f… view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** Band 9 (left) and 4 (right) contours, starting at 2𝜎 and increasing in steps of 1𝜎, are overlaid on the JWST/NIRCam F444W image cutout (∼ 4.4 ′′ × 4.4 ′′) of the Big Three Dragons from Sugahara et al. (2025). The JWST data clearly resolve the Eastern and Western clumps, which align well with the Band 9 emission. The Band 4 emission is unresolved, though appears centered on the Eastern component. Overlays of Bands 6,… view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** A comparison between the global and component-wise MBB fits. The left panel contains the global MBB fit (purple) to the multi band ALMA data, with the Band 3 (purple triangle) and Herschel data points (red triangles) used as upper limits. The solid line represents the median fit while the shaded region covers the 16th-84th percentiles.The right panel shows the MBB fits to the resolved data from ALMA Bands 6, 8 and 9… view at source ↗

Figures from the paper (5 more)

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: The cosmic evolution of dust temperatures based on high-redshift Lyman-break galaxies with dual- and multi-band ALMA detections (blue points; Faisst et al. 2020; Bakx et al. 2021, 2025; Akins et al. 2022; Witstok et al. 2022; Algera et al. 2024a,b, 2025; Mitsuhashi et…

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: The IR luminosity 𝐿IR of 𝑧 ≳ 5 Lyman-break galaxies targeted with ALMA as a function of redshift. The purple, green and orange stars, respectively, represent the 𝐿IR of the Big Three Dragons system as well as its east-west clumps. The luminosities of literature galaxie…

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: The Big Three Dragons (purple star) and its two components (orange and green stars) on the IRX-𝛽UV relation. The solid (dashed) line represents the Calzetti (SMC) relation anchored to a 𝛽UV,0 = −2.62. The grey points are 𝑧 ≈ 7 galaxies from the REBELS survey (Bowler et…

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: Dust temperature versus SFR surface density for the East and West clumps of the Big Three Dragons, compared with representative high redshift galaxies. The navy blue points represent quasar host galaxies at 𝑧 ∼ 6.5 from Costa et al. (2026), while the 𝑧 = 7.1 − 8.3 Lyma…

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: Top: the obscured fraction across the full UV-bright (𝑀UV < −21.5) LBG population at 7 < 𝑧 < 7.5, as a function of the incidence rate of Big Three Dragons-like (B3D-like) systems, 𝑥B3D, defined such that for 𝑥B3D = 1 all UV-luminous LBGs with 𝑀UV < −21.5 have an obscur…

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 12, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.

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