3D simulations of a complete convective silicon shell burning phase

A. St.J. Murphy; C. Georgy; C. Meakin; F. Rizzuti; K. Goodman; M. Moc\'ak; R. Hirschi; T. Rauscher; V. Varma; W.D. Arnett

REVIEW 3 major objections 5 minor 298 references

3D simulations of a complete convective silicon shell burning phase

T0 review · 3 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-06 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read Full 3D hydrodynamics makes a pre-supernova silicon shell burn out roughly 800 s earlier than a 1D model, because resolved, stiff convective boundaries entrain far less fresh fuel than the 1D diffusive overshoot prescription.

desk verdict First complete 3D silicon-shell burn to exhaustion; the qualitative stiff-boundary story holds, but the ~800 s lifetime difference is not cleanly separated from the nuclear-network difference. read the letter →

arxiv 2608.04954 v1 pith:62YXWQGO submitted 2026-08-05 astro-ph.SR

V. Varma , R. Hirschi , F. Rizzuti , T. Rauscher , A. St.J. Murphy , M. Mocák , C. Meakin , K. Goodman

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C. Georgy W.D. Arnett

This is my paper

classification astro-ph.SR

keywords siliconshellburningconvectiveboundarymixing3Dstellarhydrodynamicsconvective-reactivebulkRichardsonnumberquasi-statisticalequilibriumsupernovaprogenitorturbulententrainment

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper reports the first 3D hydrodynamic simulation of a complete silicon shell burning phase, run until fuel exhaustion for a non-rotating 14 solar-mass supernova progenitor. Its central claim is that the silicon shell burns out roughly 800 s earlier in 3D than in the corresponding 1D stellar evolution model, because resolved turbulent convection entrains far less fresh fuel than the 1D diffusive overshoot prescription. The mechanism is boundary stiffness: both convective boundaries have large bulk Richardson numbers (the stabilizing buoyancy jump divided by the turbulent kinetic energy), so the entrainment velocity drops to zero at the upper boundary within about 1500 s, whereas the 1D model's imposed mixing reaches a previously convective, silicon-rich layer above the shell and extends its life. The paper also establishes that the phase is convective-reactive, with nuclear burning timescales shorter than mixing timescales, and that the angular-averaged energy generation is double-peaked, with regions of near-zero or negative net heating produced by quasi-statistical-equilibrium readjustment and near-balanced forward and reverse $(\alpha,p)$ reaction rates. A sympathetic reader would care because this implies 1D codes should tie convective boundary mixing to the physical stiffness of each boundary, and because multidimensional burning can change the pre-supernova shell lifetime and structure that feed core collapse.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing object is the bulk Richardson number, $\mathrm{Ri}_B = \ell \$\Delta$ b / v_{\mathrm{rms}}^2$, where $\$\Delta$ b = \int $N^{2}$ \, dr$ is the buoyancy jump integrated across a convective boundary, $\ell$ a turbulent length scale, and $v_{\mathrm{rms}}$ the rms convective velocity; it measures how stiff a boundary is relative to the kinetic energy available to entrain material. It enters through the entrainment law $v_e / v_{\mathrm{rms}} = A\, \mathrm{Ri}$_B^{{-n}}$$, which the paper uses to show that both silicon-shell boundaries are on the high end of previously studied shells and that entrainment declines as the shell stiffens. The second mechanism is the Damköhler number, $\mathrm{Da} = \tau_{\mathrm{mix}} / \tau_{\mathrm{nuc}}$, the ratio of mixing to nuclear timescales, which marks the shell as convective-reactive and explains why composition is not homogenised. The third ingredient is the reduced 25-isotope network built around QSE (quasi-statistical-equilibrium) groups, whose near-balanced $(\alpha,p)$ reactions and their inverses, notably $^{28}\mathrm{Si}(\$\alpha$,p)^{31}\mathrm{P}$ and $^{31}\mathrm{P}(p,\$\alpha$)^{28}\mathrm{Si}$, produce the alternating exoergic and endoergic patches and the double-peaked mean energy generation, with a $^{44}\mathrm{Ti}$ bottleneck (slow $^{44}\mathrm{Ti}(\$\alpha$,\gamma)^{48}\mathrm{Cr}$) causing accumulation of $^{36}\mathrm{Ar}$, $^{40}\mathrm{Ca}$, and $^{44}\mathrm{Ti}$.

What would settle it

Repeat the 3D simulation from the same mapped progenitor using the same 22-isotope network as the MESA run (or a substantially larger network), and check two things: whether the silicon shell still exhausts roughly 800 s earlier than the 1D model, and whether the upper-boundary entrainment velocity still falls to zero near 1500 s. If matching the networks removes most of the lifetime difference, or if the overlying silicon-rich layer is entrained once the reaction flow changes, the claim that stiff boundaries rather than network choice shorten the phase would be overturned.

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Extended reading notes

Core claim

The paper's central claim, stated on its own terms, is that the silicon shell in a 14 M$_\odot$ progenitor burns for roughly 800 s less in 3D than in the 1D MESA model from which it was mapped, and that this difference is a hydrodynamic consequence of stiff convective boundaries rather than a network artefact. In the MESA model, the exponentially decaying diffusive overshoot eventually connects the active shell to a flat-entropy region left by an earlier convective episode, mixing in fresh $^{28}\mathrm{Si}$ and $^{32}\mathrm{S}$ and keeping the shell burning to about 3000 s. In the 3D simulation the entropy jump at the upper boundary stays large, the bulk Richardson numbers remain high, and the entrainment velocity falls to zero after about 1500 s, so the shell consumes its own fuel and dies just after 2000 s without incorporating the overlying layer. The authors further argue that the burning is convective-reactive: Damköhler numbers of order unity or larger mean nuclear processing outpaces turbulent homogenisation, so abundances develop strong radial gradients and the mean energy-generation profile becomes double-peaked, with a near-zero or negative region between the peaks. They attribute this structure to quasi-statistical-equilibrium groups whose reaction flow is carried by $(\alpha,p)$ reactions and their inverses, with forward and reverse rates so similar that small temperature fluctuations make local regions exoergic or endoergic; the dominance of $^{56}\mathrm{Ni}$ over $^{54}\mathrm{Fe}$ in the 3D ash, unlike the 1D model, is explicitly interpreted as a reduced-network and weak-interaction effect rather than a result of the mixing.

Load-bearing premise

The reduced 25-isotope network used in the 3D run reproduces the energy generation and fuel-consumption rates well enough that the roughly 800 s lifetime difference is a mixing effect and not a network effect, even though the 1D comparison model burns with a different 22-isotope network.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

1D stellar evolution codes should stop applying a single convective boundary mixing value to all boundaries; this paper shows the length-scale overshoot prescription in the MESA model mixes too much, while mixing tied to boundary stiffness, for instance through the bulk Richardson number, would not.
The silicon shell burning phase is a convective-reactive event: within the shell, nuclear processing and turbulent transport run on comparable timescales, so composition gradients and energy generation cannot be inferred from the temperature profile alone.
The direction of the 1D-versus-3D boundary mixing difference is not universal: earlier oxygen, carbon, and neon shell studies found 3D entrainment stronger than 1D mixing, while the stiff silicon shell shows the opposite, so each convective boundary must be assessed on its own physical conditions.
If 3D is the better description, the pre-supernova structure changes at the level of silicon-shell lifetime and final shell extent, altering the mass, entropy, and composition profile that the collapsing core and the supernova shock will encounter.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

A natural testable extension is to replace the 1D model's uniform CBM with a stiffness-dependent prescription calibrated by these Ri_B values; the resulting pre-supernova models would predict a smaller silicon-shell mass and a different density gradient at collapse, which can be checked against explosion simulations.
Because forward and reverse $(\alpha,p)$ rates are so nearly balanced, nuclear rate uncertainties translate almost directly into uncertainty in the shell's lifetime and energy profile; more precise measurements of $^{28}\mathrm{Si}(\alpha,p)^{31}\mathrm{P}$ and the calcium–titanium flow rates would shrink the spread in predicted silicon-burning durations.
The double-peaked, partially endoergic energy-generation signature may be a generic fingerprint of convective-reactive burning in QSE-regulated material, worth searching for in other late-stage shells and shell-merger events, where it would be observable as alternating heating/cooling patches.
The 800 s figure comes from one progenitor, one network, and one mapping; the direction of the effect is more robust than its size, and mapping it across initial masses, metallicities, and rotation rates would show how much of the pre-collapse structure actually depends on multidimensional mixing.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

Colleague,

The thing to know: this is the first 3D simulation that follows a convective silicon-burning shell through to fuel exhaustion, and the central qualitative result—stiff boundaries, weak entrainment, no merger with the overlying flat-entropy layer—looks solid. The quantitative claim that the 3D shell burns ~800 s shorter because of weaker CBM is plausible but not fully isolated from the fact that the 3D and 1D models use different nuclear networks.

What's genuinely new: the complete evolution to exhaustion, the double-peaked energy generation profile, and the convective-reactive interpretation supported by Damköhler numbers and the RA-ILES budgets. The paper is also honest about its own limitations—it explicitly says the MESA comparison is not one-to-one, flags the network and weak-interaction effects on iron-group composition, and warns that mapping with a different network can shift burning fronts. That authorship honesty counts for something.

The soft spots are real but not fatal. The stress-test concern lands: MESA uses approx21_plus_Co56, PROMPI uses a 25-isotope network with explicit (α,p) channels, and the paper itself says the dominant reaction pathways differ. So the ~1000 s lifetime difference (the abstract's 'roughly 800 s' is a bit loose but not wildly off) could be partly a network effect rather than purely a CBM effect. The paper doesn't present a like-for-like comparison of fuel consumption rates before the merger. The boundary-stiffness diagnostics (Ri_b, v_e/v_rms) show entrainment is weak, but they don't by themselves prove that weak entrainment, rather than faster fuel consumption, truncates the shell. Second, the main result rests on a single 3D realization (45med) run to exhaustion; the resolution study shows broad consistency, but the authors themselves note it's unclear whether the upper-boundary growth differences are stochastic. Third, data availability is 'on reasonable request'—for a simulation paper, that's a reproducibility weakness.

Who this is for: stellar evolution and CCSN people, especially those calibrating CBM prescriptions in 1D codes. A serious referee should be assigned. The authors should be asked to (1) run a controlled comparison—same network in 1D and 3D, or at least show fuel-consumption rates are network-independent—and (2) tighten the number in the abstract to match the text. Even if the quantitative claim softens, the qualitative finding about stiff silicon-shell boundaries is worth publishing.

My take: send it to review.

Referee Report

3 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper presents the first 3D hydrodynamic simulations (PROMPI) of a complete convective silicon shell burning phase in a 14 solar-mass progenitor, evolved until fuel exhaustion. The authors compare the 3D run against the parent 1D MESA model, find that the 3D shell burns out earlier, and attribute this to weaker convective boundary mixing (CBM) caused by stiff boundaries. They also analyze the convective-reactive nature of the burning, including a double-peaked energy generation profile and the importance of (alpha,p) and reverse reactions. Resolution and opening-angle sensitivity are assessed with four simulations.

Significance. If the central claim is correct, the paper provides an important counterexample to the common assumption that 1D overshoot prescriptions overestimate or underestimate CBM in a uniform way; it suggests that CBM must depend on boundary stiffness (e.g., the bulk Richardson number). The study is also significant as the first 3D simulation to follow a silicon shell to exhaustion, and it includes a careful TKE budget, entrainment diagnostics, and Damköhler-number analysis. The authors are explicit about limitations of the reduced 25-isotope network, which is a strength. However, the headline quantitative claim is not yet supported by the evidence presented, mainly because the 3D and 1D models differ in their nuclear networks and reaction-flow treatment.

major comments (3)

[Abstract and Section 3] The abstract states that the silicon shell in the 3D model burns for 'roughly 800 s shorter', but Section 3 and Figures 2–3 state that the MESA model exhausts after around 3000 s while the 3D model exhausts 'just after 2000 s', a difference of approximately 1000 s. This quantitative inconsistency must be resolved, and the abstract should be corrected to match the actual difference or the text should be changed to support 800 s.
[Section 3 and Section 6] The central causal claim — that lower CBM in 3D is the reason for the shorter shell lifetime — is confounded by the use of different nuclear networks: MESA uses the 22-isotope 'approx21_plus_Co56' network while PROMPI uses a 25-isotope network. Section 6 shows that in the 3D model the dominant reaction flows involve (alpha,p) reactions and their inverses (e.g., 28Si(alpha,p)31P), whereas the 1D network burns primarily through (alpha,gamma) channels. A network that processes fuel through faster (alpha,p) paths will consume silicon more rapidly even with identical entrainment. The paper does not provide a control test, such as a 1D run with the 25-isotope network, a 3D run with the 22-isotope network, or at least a quantitative comparison of fuel-consumption rates before the 1D CBM merges with the overlying layer. Without such a control, the attribution of the lifetime difference to CBM alone is not established.
[Section 7] The paper's own caveat in Section 7 states that mapping a 1D model to 3D with a substantially different nuclear network can lead to a loss of hydrostatic equilibrium or significant changes in the location of burning fronts. This is a direct threat to the validity of the 3D-vs-1D lifetime comparison. The authors should demonstrate that the burning-front location and the fuel-depletion history are sufficiently insensitive to the network difference for the claimed ~800–1000 s lifetime shift to be meaningful, or they should soften the causal claim in the abstract accordingly.

minor comments (5)

[Abstract] The abbreviation 'CMB' is used for 'convective boundary mixing' in the abstract; this should be 'CBM' for consistency with the rest of the paper.
[Section 5] Caption of Figure 9: 'bulk Richardson, 𝑅𝑖𝑏, number' is awkward; consider 'bulk Richardson number, 𝑅𝑖𝑏'.
[Section 6] 'Damk"ohlner numbers' appears with an incorrectly typeset umlaut; use 'Damköhler numbers'.
[Section 6] The sentence 'We performed a one-zone 1 analysis around this radius' reads unclearly; consider 'We performed a one-zone analysis'.
[Figure 11 caption] Missing space in 'at1.95×108cm'.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the shorter 3D burn time is an emergent simulation output, with the network-difference caveat being a robustness limitation rather than a circular step.

full rationale

The paper's derivation chain is forward and not closed onto its inputs. The 3D model is evolved from a mapped 1D MESA profile; the lifetime difference (Section 3: MESA 'exhausted after around 3000 s' vs 3D 'just after 2000 s') is an emergent output, and no parameter is fitted to reproduce that output. The causal attribution to weaker CBM is supported by independent diagnostics: nearly stationary convective boundaries after about 500 s (Figs 2-3), sharp abundance and entropy edges near r about 3e8 cm (Figs 4-5), and large bulk Richardson numbers (Fig 9). The entrainment-law constants A and n in Eq. 3 come from prior work but are not used to force the burn time or the entrainment behavior; the boundary-stationarity conclusion does not rest on those calibration constants. The paper itself flags the main confounding limitation in Section 7: mapping a 1D model to 3D with a substantially different nuclear network 'can lead to a quick loss of hydrostatic equilibrium and even significant changes in the location of the main burning fronts,' and Section 3 acknowledges the 22-isotope MESA network versus the 25-isotope PROMPI network differ in reaction pathways. This is a genuine robustness and correctness concern, and the abstract's 'roughly 800 s' is numerically inconsistent with the roughly 1000 s difference stated in Section 3, but it is a confound between two separate input choices, not a reduction of a predicted quantity to an equivalent input. Self-citations (Meakin & Arnett 2007; Rizzuti et al. 2022, 2023; Whitehead et al. 2026) provide the code, progenitor model, and entrainment framework without being invoked as a self-consistent uniqueness theorem; the comparison between stiff-boundary hydrodynamic entrainment and 1D diffusive overshoot is performed by the present simulation. No equation defines the claimed result in terms of itself. Verdict: no significant circularity.

Assumptions & free parameters 0 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The paper introduces no fitted parameters. The entrainment law constants A and n are taken from prior work and are not fitted here; they are only used to interpret the Richardson number, which is itself an output. The MESA model's overshoot length scale is a property of the reference 1D model, not a parameter fit in this paper. No new particles, forces, or conserved quantities are introduced; the 'double-peaked energy generation profile' is an emergent property of the simulation, not a new entity.

assumptions (4)

domain assumption The 14SH21 MESA progenitor (Whitehead et al. 2026) accurately represents the structure of a non-rotating 14 solar mass star at 4000 s before core-collapse.
The 3D simulation is initialized by mapping this 1D model; any error in the progenitor structure propagates into all results. No independent verification of the progenitor is given in this paper.
domain assumption The 25-isotope reduced network captures the dominant energetics, reaction flows, and timescales of silicon burning relevant to shell lifetime and boundary mixing.
The paper states this in Section 2 and relies on it for the burn-time and energy generation claims, but explicitly notes in Sections 3 and 7 that a more complete network could change results, especially weak interactions and electron fraction.
domain assumption The exponential overshoot CBM prescription used in the MESA model is representative of standard 1D stellar evolution mixing.
The comparison between 3D and 1D assumes that the 1D model's mixing is a typical 1D prescription. The paper uses this to argue that 3D mixing is weaker.
domain assumption Numerical dissipation in the PROMPI ILES scheme approximates physical turbulent dissipation at the grid scale.
The paper compares the residual TKE term to the isotropic turbulence expression and shows balance, but no explicit viscosity is used, so the effective Reynolds number is finite and resolution-dependent.

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Pith. "Pith review of 3D simulations of a complete convective silicon shell burning phase." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/62YXWQGO

@misc{pith2026260804954,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: 3D simulations of a complete convective silicon shell burning phase},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/62YXWQGO}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2608.04954}
}

abstract

We present 3D hydrodynamic simulations of a complete silicon shell burning phase until fuel exhaustion at the end of the evolution of a 14$M_\odot$ core-collapse supernova progenitor, using a reduced 25-isotope nuclear network. We investigate how realistic turbulent convection affects this burning phase, which has a more complicated set of nuclear reactions than previous burning phases. We find broad similarities between the 3D simulation and the 1D \textsc{MESA} model. However, due to more realistic feedback from the very stiff convective boundaries in the hydrodynamic simulations, the 3D simulation experiences lower convective boundary mixing (CMB) compared to 1D, and hence entrains less fresh fuel into the silicon shell. This leads to the silicon shell in the 3D model burning for roughly 800\,s shorter. We find that the nuclear burning timescales for the dominant reactions are faster than the mixing timescale, making this entire process a convective-reactive event. The angular-averaged energy generation profile shows a double-peaked structure, where the region between the positive peaks are close to zero, or are negative. We find that throughout the base of this silicon shell, many $(\alpha, p)$ and their inverse reactions are important. The forward and reverse rates are very similar, so slight fluctuations in the temperature cause regions to be either exoergic or endoergic, leading to a complicated energy generation evolution. This study presents an exploration using a single reduced nuclear network, however, due to the sensitivity of this burning phase future studies should investigate the impact of more complete nuclear networks.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2608.04954 by the authors.

**Figure 1.** Structure evolution (Kippenhahn) diagram showing the full evolution of the 14M⊙ star (left), along with the initial temperature (solid blue) and entropy (dashed green) profiles of the region mapped to 3D (right). The primary convective silicon shell is depicted by the blue shaded regions, with the CBM shown in cyan. The red arrow indicates the silicon shell we simulate, and the vertical red line indicates where the … view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** Time evolution, in seconds, of the turbulent kinetic energy against radius of the 1D model (left) compared to the 3D model (right). For the 1D model, the time 0, marked with a vertical green line, is the initial condition for the 3D simulation. Both plots include white/gray lines that indicate iso-mass contours. 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Age - ageref [s] 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 Mr [M ] 10 13 10 14 500 1000 1500 … view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** Time evolution, in seconds, of the turbulent kinetic energy as a function of mass coordinates for the 1D model (left) compared to the 3D model (right). For the 1D model, the time 0, marked with a vertical green line, is the initial condition for the 3D simulation. 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 Radius (10 8 cm) 10 12 10 10 10 8 10 6 10 4 10 2 10 0 Mass Fraction p He4 C12 O16 Ne20 Mg24 Si28 S32 Ca40 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 … view at source ↗

Figures from the paper (12 more)

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: The full range of isotopes in MESA at 1000 s after the 3D simulation has begun MNRAS 000, 1–16 (2024) [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_4.png]

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: The full range of isotopes in PROMPI at 1000 s after the 3D simulation has begun alone. These differences, while changing the isotopic abundances, shouldn’t affect our qualitative comparison between these two models. Finally, we note that many of the isotopes showing …

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: Velocity profiles for the four simulations. The quantity 𝑣begin is the rms velocity at 𝑡 ≃ 100 s, shortly after the initial relaxation phase. The profiles 𝑣𝑟 , 𝑣hor, and 𝑣rms show the radial, horizontal, and total rms velocities at 𝑡 ≃ 1000 s. The blue shaded region in…

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: Two-dimensional slices of the velocity magnitude for the four simulations at 𝑡 ≃ 1000 s. The panels compare the effect of both angular opening angle and numerical resolution. From left to right, top to bottom, the models visualised are 45med, 45high, 90low and 90med […

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: Time evolution of energy generation and radial RMS velocity profiles. The red line shows the energy generation rate from the 1D MESA model for comparison. initial condition. After this initial transient, the convective shell settles into a quasi-steady state for most…

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: Time evolution plot of the bulk Richardson, 𝑅𝑖𝑏, number (red) and entrainment velocity, 𝑣𝑒/𝑣𝑎, (black). The solid and dotted lines represent the radially outer and inner convective boundaries respectively. tions at each timestep can qualitatively alter the energy gener…

**Figure 10.** Figure 10: Spatial and temporal averaged terms from the turbulent kinetic energy equation. This plot is of the model 45high and has been averaged over 10 convective turnovers. 𝐶𝑚 here is set to 1.0, showing that the numerical dissipation is well described by isotropic turbulence…

**Figure 11.** Figure 11: Isotopes mass fractions and ratios evolution at the first energy generation peak at 1.95 × 108 cm of the 45med model. 6 SILICON BURNING AND ENERGY GENERATION We now turn to the nuclear evolution of the silicon-burning shell and its connection to the energy-generation …

**Figure 12.** Figure 12: 2D slices through model 45high of energy generation rate at 100 s and 1000 s [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_12.png]

**Figure 13.** Figure 13: 2D slices through model 45high of the proton mass fraction at 100 s and 1000 s high, we continue to see evolution of the nuclear species in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_13.png]

**Figure 14.** Figure 14: Spatial and temporal averaged terms from the composition equation of 28Si, 44Ti, and 54Fe. This plot is of the model 45high and has been averaged over 10 convective turnovers. our discussion above regarding Ti and Ca rates, the inverse reaction 28Si(𝛼, 𝑝) 31P is usual…

**Figure 15.** Figure 15: Nuclear and transport timescales alongside Damkohler number plots of 28Si, 44Ti, and 54Fe. This plot is of the model 45high and has been averaged over 10 convective turnovers. diate species, 44Ti is depleted in the lower part of the shell where the reaction flow proce…

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 6, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.

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