pith. sign in

arxiv: 2606.23576 · v1 · pith:6SMH6V63new · submitted 2026-06-22 · 🌌 astro-ph.SR

Corotating Interaction Regions (CIRs): evolution over a solar lifetime

Rose F. P. Waugh , Moira Jardine This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-26 07:05 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.SR
keywords Corotating Interaction Regionsstellar windssolar evolutionenergetic particlesplanetary atmospheresHadean periodhabitable zonespace weather
0
0 comments X

The pith

CIRs formed closer to the young Sun and generated 10^3 to 10^7 times more energetic particles during the Hadean than today.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper models how Corotating Interaction Regions evolve in the wind of a solar-mass star as its rotation rate changes over billions of years. It shows that these regions begin closer to the star when rotation is rapid and move outward as the star slows, which increases the production of high-energy particles early in the star's life. This early excess could have driven stronger chemical changes and atmospheric escape on young planets like Earth. The model also indicates that shocks always form outside the habitable zone even when the regions themselves reach inside it. These age-dependent changes matter because they link stellar spin-down directly to the particle environment that shapes planetary atmospheres.

Core claim

CIRs form closer to the star during early spin-up phases and migrate outward during spin down, with the minimum CIR radius inversely related to rotation rate. The distribution of high-energy particles produced in CIR shocks varies significantly with age. During the Hadean period CIRs may have generated a number of energetic particles that is 10^3 to 10^7 times greater than for the present-day Sun. The frequency and strength of CIR-planet interactions also peak during early rapid rotation phases. For stars with mass less than 1.4 Msun, whilst CIRs can form within the habitable zone, their shocks always form beyond it.

What carries the argument

The minimum CIR radius, which scales inversely with stellar rotation rate and is tracked through a rotational evolution framework that updates wind speeds with stellar age.

If this is right

  • The number and energy of particles reaching planets from CIR shocks was orders of magnitude higher in the first billion years than at present.
  • CIR-planet interaction frequency and intensity reached a maximum during the star's rapid rotation phase.
  • Energetic particles can still reach planets inside the habitable zone even though the shocks that accelerate them form farther out.
  • Atmospheric chemistry and escape rates on terrestrial planets were more strongly influenced by stellar-wind structures when the host star was young.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same scaling of minimum CIR radius with rotation rate could be used to estimate particle environments around other solar-type stars at different ages.
  • Records of ancient cosmic-ray exposure in lunar or meteoritic material might provide an independent check on the predicted early particle flux.
  • For stars that remain rapid rotators longer than the Sun, the period of elevated CIR-driven particle bombardment would extend to later times in planetary evolution.

Load-bearing premise

The rotational evolution framework correctly predicts wind speeds and CIR positions even in the fast-rotation regime without extra effects from magnetic field changes or varying mass loss.

What would settle it

A measurement of the actual formation distance of CIRs around a young solar analog, or a reconstruction of early solar energetic particle flux from geological or meteoritic records, that falls outside the predicted 10^3 to 10^7 enhancement range.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.23576 by Moira Jardine, Rose F. P. Waugh.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Schematic of a corotating interaction region (grey) forming at the boundary between the fast (orange) and slow (blue) winds. larreal D’Angelo et al. 2014; Daley-Yates & Stevens 2017; McCann et al. 2019; Vidotto & Cleary 2020). Winds, alongside flares, coronal mass ejections and high XUV radiation, are processes which could cause atmospheric loss and chemical changes in the atmospheres of exoplanets (Linsky… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: (a) Simple rotational evolution curve, generated from the Baraffe track for a solar mass star (Baraffe et al. 2015). (b) The minimum CIR radius supported with stellar age, with the orbits of Mercury and Venus shown by the dashed lines and brown and green points, respectively. (c) As in (b) but shown in units of AU, since the stellar radius also varies with age. The plot of minimum CIR radius with stellar a… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: (a) The distribution of particle energies from the CIRs for various stellar ages. (b) As in (a) but as a fraction for the present day Sun. (c) The CIRs (black) and fast wind streams (red) for the selected ages. Mercury’s orbit is shown for scale by the dashed circle. of particle energies from CIRS at a range of radii. Again, curves are truncated at 𝑣 = 1 (MeV/nucleon)1/2 . As the CIR moves out in radius, t… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Distributions of particles produced in shocks for CIRs of different radii (1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 AU), as experienced by planets in an Earth, Venus and Mars orbit. collisions at these ages, and the CIRs are supported in tighter spirals. Whilst the CIR impacts are less frequent at very young and old ages, the changing tightness of the spirals means that the fast wind stream encompassing the CIR that is experie… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Minimum CIR radius with stellar mass. Blue lines show the loca￾tions of planetary habitability for various stars using data from Baraffe et al. (2015), the black line shows the minimum CIR radius as calculated from Equation 1 for a star with 𝑃★ = 3 days, and the purple line shows the radius at which the CIR shock would form (where 𝑀1 = 1) assuming . evolution curve constructed from four functions that desc… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: (a) Curves showing the frequency of CIR impacts on a planet in a 1 AU orbit, for 2 (blue), 4 (orange), 6 (green) and 8 (red) CIR streams. (b) The jump in ram pressure (𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑚,𝑎 𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟 /𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑚,𝑏𝑒 𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑒) of the CIR with stellar age. The CIR shapes with age are also shown for completeness. habitable zone in units of AU is equal to the square root of the fractional luminosity: 𝑎 𝑎⊕ =  𝐿★ 𝐿⊙ 1/2 . (10) Using evolu… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Corotating Interaction Regions (CIRs) are persistent structures in stellar winds that arise from the interaction between fast and slow wind streams. They are known to generate shocks and high-energy particles, potentially influencing the erosion of planetary atmospheres and space weather conditions. Although extensively studied for the present-day Sun, their evolution over a star's lifetime and implications for planetary environments remain less explored. We model the evolution of CIRs around a solar-mass star using a rotational evolution framework and assess how their location, shape, and particle distributions vary with stellar age. We find that CIRs form closer to the star during early spin-up phases and migrate outward during spin down, with the minimum CIR radius inversely related to rotation rate. We show that the distribution of high-energy particles produced in CIR shocks varies significantly with age. During the Hadean period, when Earth's atmosphere evolved significantly, CIRs may have generated a number of energetic particles that is \(10^3\) to \(10^7\) times greater than for the present-day Sun. The frequency and strength of CIR-planet interactions also peak during early rapid rotation phases. Furthermore, we demonstrate from this preliminary study that, for stars with mass less than 1.4 Msun, whilst CIRs can form within the habitable zone, their shocks always form beyond it. This suggests that energetic particle impacts may rain inward from more distant regions, as with the present-day Sun. These findings have implications for habitability and the evolution of atmospheres since these particles can alter the chemistry and escape rate of atmospheres.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript models the evolution of Corotating Interaction Regions (CIRs) in the stellar wind of a solar-mass star over its lifetime by evolving wind properties within a rotational evolution framework. It reports that the minimum CIR radius scales inversely with rotation rate, with CIRs forming closer to the star during early rapid spin-up and migrating outward as the star spins down; high-energy particle distributions from CIR shocks vary strongly with age, yielding 10^3 to 10^7 times more energetic particles during the Hadean epoch than at present; and, for stars below 1.4 solar masses, CIRs can form inside the habitable zone while their shocks remain outside it.

Significance. If the modeling framework and extrapolations hold, the quantitative scaling of CIR location and particle production with stellar age would provide a concrete link between stellar rotational evolution and the energetic particle environment experienced by early planetary atmospheres, with direct relevance to Hadean-era atmospheric chemistry and escape. The inverse-radius relation and the stated particle-multiplication factor constitute falsifiable predictions that could be tested against observations of young solar analogs or exoplanet atmospheric signatures.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: the central quantitative claim that CIR shocks produced 10^3–10^7 times more energetic particles during the Hadean rests on the rotational-evolution framework correctly mapping rotation rate to wind-speed contrast, Alfvén radius, and shock Mach number in the fast-rotator regime; no sensitivity tests, comparisons to alternative wind-acceleration prescriptions, or discussion of possible saturation effects (e.g., mass-loss or magnetic topology changes above ~10–20 times solar rotation) are indicated, rendering the particle-enhancement factor an unvalidated extrapolation.
  2. [Abstract] Abstract: the statement that “CIRs can form within the habitable zone” while “their shocks always form beyond it” for stars <1.4 M⊙ is presented as a general result, yet the manuscript provides no explicit calculation of habitable-zone boundaries, no tabulation of shock-formation radii versus stellar mass and age, and no error propagation from the underlying wind model, making the claim difficult to assess or reproduce.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] The abstract refers to “a preliminary study” but does not specify which parameters were varied or held fixed; a brief methods paragraph or table listing the adopted wind-acceleration law, magnetic-field scaling, and rotation-period evolution prescription would improve clarity.
  2. [Abstract] Notation for the minimum CIR radius and the particle-multiplication factor is introduced without symbols or units; consistent use of defined symbols (e.g., R_CIR,min(Ω)) would aid readability.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive comments on our manuscript. We respond point-by-point to the major comments below and indicate the revisions that will be incorporated.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: the central quantitative claim that CIR shocks produced 10^3–10^7 times more energetic particles during the Hadean rests on the rotational-evolution framework correctly mapping rotation rate to wind-speed contrast, Alfvén radius, and shock Mach number in the fast-rotator regime; no sensitivity tests, comparisons to alternative wind-acceleration prescriptions, or discussion of possible saturation effects (e.g., mass-loss or magnetic topology changes above ~10–20 times solar rotation) are indicated, rendering the particle-enhancement factor an unvalidated extrapolation.

    Authors: We agree that the abstract does not explicitly address uncertainties in the fast-rotator regime. The underlying rotational-evolution framework follows standard prescriptions calibrated against solar analogs, but we acknowledge the value of additional validation. In the revised manuscript we will add a dedicated subsection in the discussion that presents sensitivity tests to alternative wind-acceleration models, examines the impact of saturation effects above ~10–20 times solar rotation, and quantifies how these affect the reported particle-enhancement range. This will strengthen the robustness of the 10^3–10^7 factor without altering the central result. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: the statement that “CIRs can form within the habitable zone” while “their shocks always form beyond it” for stars <1.4 M⊙ is presented as a general result, yet the manuscript provides no explicit calculation of habitable-zone boundaries, no tabulation of shock-formation radii versus stellar mass and age, and no error propagation from the underlying wind model, making the claim difficult to assess or reproduce.

    Authors: We accept that the claim requires more explicit supporting material to be reproducible. The revised version will include: (i) explicit habitable-zone boundaries calculated with the Kopparapu et al. (2013) prescription for a range of stellar masses and ages, (ii) a table or supplementary figure tabulating minimum CIR and shock radii versus mass and age, and (iii) a short discussion of error propagation arising from the wind-model parameters. These additions will allow readers to assess the statement directly. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity identified; abstract provides no equations or self-citations for inspection.

full rationale

The provided text consists solely of the abstract, which states that CIR location, shape and particle distributions are obtained by evolving wind properties inside a rotational-evolution framework, yielding minimum CIR radius inversely proportional to rotation rate and particle numbers 10^3–10^7 times larger at early ages. No equations, parameter fits, self-citations, or derivation steps are quoted. Hard rules require explicit quotes exhibiting reduction by construction (e.g., fitted input renamed as prediction or self-citation load-bearing the central claim); none exist here. The derivation chain therefore cannot be walked and is treated as self-contained within the model framework.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 0 invented entities

Abstract-only review; no explicit free parameters, axioms, or invented entities are stated. The rotational evolution framework is invoked but its internal assumptions are not detailed.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5816 in / 1145 out tokens · 16920 ms · 2026-06-26T07:05:18.380382+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

94 extracted references · 82 canonical work pages · 13 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    Geophysical Monograph Series , year = 1997, month = jan, volume =

    The Interplanetary causes of magnetic storms: A review. Geophysical Monograph Series , year = 1997, month = jan, volume =. doi:10.1029/GM098p0077 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1029/gm098p0077 1997

  2. [2]

    AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts , year = 2019, volume =

    A Comparative Study of 2017 July and 2012 July Complex Eruptions: Are Solar Superstorms ``Perfect Storms'' in Nature?. AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts , year = 2019, volume =

    2017

  3. [3]

    Earth, Planets and Space , keywords =

    Solar events and solar wind conditions associated with intense geomagnetic storms. Earth, Planets and Space , keywords =. doi:10.1186/s40623-023-01843-2 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1186/s40623-023-01843-2

  4. [4]

    , keywords =

    Stellar Winds Drive Strong Variations in Exoplanet Evaporative Outflow Patterns and Transit Absorption Signatures. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abf63a , archivePrefix =. 2012.05922 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abf63a 2012

  5. [5]

    Energetic neutral atoms as the explanation for the high velocity hydrogen around HD 209458b

    Energetic neutral atoms as the explanation for the high-velocity hydrogen around HD 209458b. , keywords =. doi:10.1038/nature06600 , archivePrefix =. 0802.2764 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1038/nature06600

  6. [8]

    Validation based on modern Earth

    A new model suite to determine the influence of cosmic rays on (exo)planetary atmospheric biosignatures. Validation based on modern Earth. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935888 , archivePrefix =. 1909.11632 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935888 1909

  7. [9]

    , keywords =

    Impact of Cosmic Rays on Atmospheric Ion Chemistry and Spectral Transmission Features of TRAPPIST-1e. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad0895 , archivePrefix =. 2311.04684 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad0895

  8. [10]

    , keywords =

    Magnetospheres of ``Hot Jupiters'': The Importance of Magnetodisks in Shaping a Magnetospheric Obstacle. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/744/1/70 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/744/1/70

  9. [11]

    Stellar wind interaction and pick-up ion escape of the Kepler-11 "super-Earths"

    Stellar wind interaction and pick-up ion escape of the Kepler-11 ``super-Earths''. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322933 , archivePrefix =. 1312.4721 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322933

  10. [12]

    Simulating the environment around planet-hosting stars. II. Stellar winds and inner astrospheres. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201628988 , archivePrefix =. 1607.08405 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201628988

  11. [13]

    , keywords =

    Three-dimensional Hydrodynamical Simulation of the Exoplanet HD 209458b. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/524945 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/524945

  12. [14]

    On the sensitivity of extrasolar mass-loss rate ranges: HD 209458b a case study

    On the sensitivity of extrasolar mass-loss rate ranges: HD 209458b a case study. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt2303 , archivePrefix =. 1312.6126 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1093/mnras/stt2303

  13. [15]

    Interacting Fields and Flows: Magnetic Hot Jupiters

    Interacting fields and flows: Magnetic hot Jupiters. Astronomische Nachrichten , keywords =. doi:10.1002/asna.201713395 , archivePrefix =. 1711.11282 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1002/asna.201713395

  14. [16]

    Morphology of Hydrodynamic Winds: A Study of Planetary Winds in Stellar Environments

    Morphology of Hydrodynamic Winds: A Study of Planetary Winds in Stellar Environments. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab05b8 , archivePrefix =. 1811.09276 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab05b8

  15. [17]

    , keywords =

    Stellar wind effects on the atmospheres of close-in giants: a possible reduction in escape instead of increased erosion. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa852 , archivePrefix =. 2003.10272 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa852 2003

  16. [18]

    Linsky , title =

    J. Linsky , title =. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11452-7 , publisher=

    work page doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11452-7

  17. [19]

    International Journal of Astrobiology , keywords =

    Impact of space weather on climate and habitability of terrestrial-type exoplanets. International Journal of Astrobiology , keywords =. doi:10.1017/S1473550419000132 , archivePrefix =. 1905.05093 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1017/s1473550419000132 1905

  18. [20]

    , keywords =

    Large-amplitude Alfv \'e n waves in the interplanetary medium, 2. , keywords =. doi:10.1029/JA076i016p03534 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1029/ja076i016p03534

  19. [21]

    Fields and Plasmas in the Outer Solar System (Article published in the special issues: Proceedings of the Symposium on Solar Terrestrial Physics held in Innsbruck, May- June 1978. (pp. 137-538)). , keywords =. doi:10.1007/BF00173811 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1007/bf00173811 1978

  20. [22]

    J. T. Gosling, A. J. Hundhausen, S. J. Bame. Solar wind stream evolution at large heliocentric distances: Experimental demonstration and the test of a model. JGR. 1976. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/JA081i013p02111

    work page doi:10.1029/ja081i013p02111 1976

  21. [23]

    P. R. Gazis and A. J. Lazarus. The radial evolution of the solar wind, 1 - 10 AU. NASA Conf. Publ. 2280. 1983

    1983

  22. [24]

    , keywords =

    Low energy ions in corotating interaction regions at 1 AU: Observations. , keywords =. doi:10.1016/0032-0633(84)90143-0 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1016/0032-0633(84)90143-0

  23. [25]

    , keywords =

    Interplanetary fast shocks and associated drivers observed through the 23rd solar minimum by Wind over its first 2.5 years. , keywords =. doi:10.1029/1999JA000367 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1029/1999ja000367

  24. [26]

    Thomas E. Cravens. Physics of Solar System Plasmas

  25. [27]

    , keywords =

    Properties of Stream Interactions at One AU During 1995 2004. , keywords =. doi:10.1007/s11207-006-0132-3 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1007/s11207-006-0132-3 1995

  26. [28]

    Physics of the Inner Heliosphere I , year = 1990, editor =

    Large-Scale Structure of the Interplanetary Medium. Physics of the Inner Heliosphere I , year = 1990, editor =. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-75361-9_3 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1007/978-3-642-75361-9_3 1990

  27. [29]

    Living Reviews in Solar Physics , keywords =

    Solar wind stream interaction regions throughout the heliosphere. Living Reviews in Solar Physics , keywords =. doi:10.1007/s41116-017-0011-z , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1007/s41116-017-0011-z

  28. [30]

    Geophysical Monograph Series , keywords =

    Review of interplanetary shock phenomena near and within 1 AU. Geophysical Monograph Series , keywords =. doi:10.1029/GM035p0033 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1029/gm035p0033

  29. [31]

    , keywords =

    Energetic Particles and Corotating Interaction Regions in the Solar Wind. , keywords =. doi:10.1023/B:SPAC.0000032689.52830.3e , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1023/b:spac.0000032689.52830.3e

  30. [32]

    , keywords =

    Evidence for interplanetary acceleration of nucleons in corotating interaction regions. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/182311 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/182311

  31. [33]

    Journal of Geophysical Research (Space Physics) , keywords =

    Solar wind drivers of energetic electron precipitation. Journal of Geophysical Research (Space Physics) , keywords =. doi:10.1002/2015JA022215 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1002/2015ja022215

  32. [34]

    Stellar Differential Rotation and Coronal Timescales

    Stellar differential rotation and coronal time-scales. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1415 , archivePrefix =. 1407.3388 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1415

  33. [35]

    Stellar Coronal Response to Differential Rotation and Flux Emergence

    Stellar coronal response to differential rotation and flux emergence. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2920 , archivePrefix =. 1603.03419 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2920

  34. [36]

    Astronomische Nachrichten , keywords =

    Coronal mass ejections and exoplanets: A numerical perspective. Astronomische Nachrichten , keywords =. doi:10.1002/asna.20210100 , archivePrefix =. 2111.09704 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1002/asna.20210100

  35. [37]

    Arkiv for Matematik, Astronomi och Fysik , keywords =

    On the Existence of Electromagnetic-Hydrodynamic Waves. Arkiv for Matematik, Astronomi och Fysik , keywords =

  36. [38]

    , keywords =

    Shock acceleration of energetic particles in corotating interaction regions in the solar wind. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/157907 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/157907

  37. [39]

    and Bouvier, J

    Gallet, F. and Bouvier, J. , year=. Improved angular momentum evolution model for solar-like stars: II. Exploring the mass dependence , volume=. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201525660 , journal=

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201525660

  38. [40]

    , keywords =

    Frequency of Coronal Mass Ejection Impacts with Early Terrestrial Planets and Exoplanets around Active Solar-like Stars. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab551f , archivePrefix =. 1911.02701 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab551f 2041

  39. [41]

    , keywords =

    Ionospheric storms on Mars: Impact of the corotating interaction region. , keywords =. doi:10.1029/2008GL036559 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1029/2008gl036559

  40. [42]

    , keywords =

    Pumping out the atmosphere of Mars through solar wind pressure pulses. , keywords =. doi:10.1029/2009GL041814 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1029/2009gl041814

  41. [43]

    Journal of Geophysical Research (Planets) , keywords =

    A Comparison of the Impacts of CMEs and CIRs on the Martian Dayside and Nightside Ionospheric Species. Journal of Geophysical Research (Planets) , keywords =. doi:10.1029/2022JE007649 , archivePrefix =. 2207.09832 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1029/2022je007649

  42. [44]

    Magnetic Braking Revisited

    Magnetic Braking Revisited. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/379192 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0308361 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1086/379192

  43. [45]

    Astronomische Nachrichten , keywords =

    Formation of polar starspots through meridional circulation. Astronomische Nachrichten , keywords =. doi:10.1002/asna.200710854 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1002/asna.200710854

  44. [46]

    , keywords =

    From stellar coronae to gyrochronology: A theoretical and observational exploration. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936974 , archivePrefix =. 2002.00696 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936974 2002

  45. [47]

    The effects of stellar winds on the magnetospheres and potential habitability of exoplanets

    The effects of stellar winds on the magnetospheres and potential habitability of exoplanets. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201424323 , archivePrefix =. 1409.1237 , primaryClass =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201424323

  46. [48]

    , year = 1958, month = nov, volume =

    Dynamics of the Interplanetary Gas and Magnetic Fields. , year = 1958, month = nov, volume =. doi:10.1086/146579 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/146579 1958

  47. [49]

    Blackman and J.E

    E.G. Blackman and J.E. Owen. Minimalist coupled evolution model for stellar X-ray activity, rotation, mass loss, and magnetic field. MNRAS. 2016

    2016

  48. [50]

    The Modulation of Galactic Cosmic Rays in the Heliosphere: Theory and Models , volume=

    Potgieter, Marius , year=. The Modulation of Galactic Cosmic Rays in the Heliosphere: Theory and Models , volume=. doi:10.1023/A:1005014722123 , journal=

    work page doi:10.1023/a:1005014722123

  49. [51]

    , number =

    Potgieter, Marius , year=. Solar Modulation of Cosmic Rays , volume=. doi:10.12942/lrsp-2013-3 , journal=

    work page doi:10.12942/lrsp-2013-3 2013

  50. [52]

    Lockwood, J. A. and Webber, W. R. , title =. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics , volume =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/96JA01821 , url =. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/96JA01821 , year =

    work page doi:10.1029/96ja01821

  51. [53]

    , title =

    Lockwood, John A. , title =. Journal of Geophysical Research (1896-1977) , volume =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/JZ065i012p03859 , url =. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/JZ065i012p03859 , year =

    work page doi:10.1029/jz065i012p03859 1977

  52. [54]

    and Parisi, M

    Iucci, N. and Parisi, M. and Storini, M. and Villoresi, G. , title =. Il Nuovo Cimento C , volume =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02558283 , year =

    work page doi:10.1007/bf02558283

  53. [55]

    Duggal, S. P. and Tsurutani, B. T. and Pomerantz, M. A. and Tsao, C. H. and Smith, E. J. , title =. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics , volume =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/JA086iA09p07473 , url =. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/JA086iA09p07473 , year =

    work page doi:10.1029/ja086ia09p07473

  54. [56]

    and Shukla, A

    Venkatesan, D. and Shukla, A. K. and Agrawal, S. P. , title =. Sol. Phys. , volume =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00151310 , url =

    work page doi:10.1007/bf00151310

  55. [57]

    Burlaga, L. F. and Klein, L. W. and Lepping, R. P. and Behannon, K. W. , title =. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics , volume =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/JA089iA12p10659 , url =. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/JA089iA12p10659 , year =

    work page doi:10.1029/ja089ia12p10659

  56. [58]

    , title =

    Newkirk Jr., Gordon and Fisk, Lennard A. , title =. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics , volume =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/JA090iA04p03391 , url =. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/JA090iA04p03391 , year =

    work page doi:10.1029/ja090ia04p03391

  57. [59]

    Richardson, I. G. and Wibberenz, G. and Cane, H. V. , title =. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics , volume =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/96JA00547 , url =. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/96JA00547 , year =

    work page doi:10.1029/96ja00547

  58. [60]

    Richardson, I. G. and Cane, H. V. and Wibberenz, G. , title =. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics , volume =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JA900130 , url =. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/1999JA900130 , year =

    work page doi:10.1029/1999ja900130

  59. [61]

    10.1051/0004-6361/201016006

    Cosmic ray modulation by solar wind disturbances , DOI= "10.1051/0004-6361/201016006", url= "https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201016006", journal =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201016006

  60. [62]

    doi:10.1007/s11207-015-0843-4

    Badruddin and Kumar, Anand , title =. doi:10.1007/s11207-015-0843-4

    work page doi:10.1007/s11207-015-0843-4

  61. [63]

    Physical Review , year = 1937, month = jun, volume =

    On the Effects in Cosmic-Ray Intensity Observed During the Recent Magnetic Storm. Physical Review , year = 1937, month = jun, volume =. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.51.1108.3 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1103/physrev.51.1108.3 1937

  62. [64]

    Astrobiology , keywords =

    Astrophysical Ionizing Radiation and Earth: A Brief Review and Census of Intermittent Intense Sources. Astrobiology , keywords =. doi:10.1089/ast.2010.0603 , archivePrefix =. 1102.2830 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1089/ast.2010.0603 2010

  63. [65]

    Health Physics , year = 2003, month = march, volume =

    Inconstant sun: How solar evolution has affected cosmic and ultraviolet radiation exposure over the history of life on earth. Health Physics , year = 2003, month = march, volume =

    2003

  64. [66]

    Astrobiology , year = 2011, month = jul, volume =

    Ionizing Radiation and Life. Astrobiology , year = 2011, month = jul, volume =. doi:10.1089/ast.2010.0528 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1089/ast.2010.0528 2011

  65. [67]

    , number =

    Cosmic rays and terrestrial life: A brief review , journal =. 2014 , note =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.astropartphys.2013.03.001 , url =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.astropartphys.2013.03.001 2014

  66. [68]

    Cosmic Rays at Earth , publisher =

    Chapter 6 - Heliospheric Phenomena , editor =. Cosmic Rays at Earth , publisher =. 2001 , isbn =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-044450710-5/50008-7 , url =

    work page doi:10.1016/b978-044450710-5/50008-7 2001

  67. [69]

    Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol

    K Zahnle, L Schaefer and B Fegley , title = ". Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. , year = 2010, month = oct, volume =

    2010

  68. [70]

    1979 , issn =

    Earth's melting due to the blanketing effect of the primordial dense atmosphere , journal =. 1979 , issn =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(79)90152-3 , url =

    work page doi:10.1016/0012-821x(79)90152-3 1979

  69. [71]

    Orlando FL Academic Press Inc International Geophysics Series , keywords =

    Planets and their atmospheres : origin and evolution. Orlando FL Academic Press Inc International Geophysics Series , keywords =

  70. [72]

    Van Hoolst, L

    T. Van Hoolst, L. Noack and A. Rivoldini , title =. Advances in Physics: X , volume =. 2019 , publisher =. doi:10.1080/23746149.2019.1630316 , URL =

    work page doi:10.1080/23746149.2019.1630316 2019

  71. [73]

    The Astrophysical Journal , volume=

    Constraints on the mass of a habitable planet with water of nebular origin , author=. The Astrophysical Journal , volume=. 2006 , publisher=

    2006

  72. [74]

    Space Science Reviews , volume=

    Emergence of a habitable planet , author=. Space Science Reviews , volume=. 2007 , publisher=

    2007

  73. [75]

    Progress of Theoretical Physics , volume=

    Dissipation of the primordial terrestrial atmosphere due to irradiation of the solar EUV , author=. Progress of Theoretical Physics , volume=. 1980 , publisher=

    1980

  74. [76]

    Progress of theoretical physics , volume=

    Dissipation of the primordial terrestrial atmosphere due to irradiation of the solar far-UV during T Tauri stage , author=. Progress of theoretical physics , volume=. 1981 , publisher=

    1981

  75. [77]

    and Arras, P

    Gronoff, G. and Arras, P. and Baraka, S. and Bell, J. M. and Cessateur, G. and Cohen, O. and Curry, S. M. and Drake, J. J. and Elrod, M. and Erwin, J. and Garcia-Sage, K. and Garraffo, C. and Glocer, A. and Heavens, N. G. and Lovato, K. and Maggiolo, R. and Parkinson, C. D. and Simon Wedlund, C. and Weimer, D. R. and Moore, W. B. , title =. Journal of Geo...

    work page doi:10.1029/2019ja027639

  76. [78]

    Lammer, Helmut and Zerkle, Aubrey L. and Gebauer, Stefanie and Tosi, Nicola and Noack, Lena and Scherf, Manuel and Pilat-Lohinger, Elke and Güdel, Manuel and Grenfell, John Lee and Godolt, Mareike and Nikolaou, Athanasia , title =. The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review , volume =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00159-018-0108-y , year =

    work page doi:10.1007/s00159-018-0108-y

  77. [79]

    Amerstorfer, U. V. and Gröller, H. and Lichtenegger, H. and Lammer, H. and Tian, F. and Noack, L. and Scherf, M. and Johnstone, C. and Tu, L. and Güdel, M. , title =. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets , volume =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JE005175 , url =. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/2016JE005175 , year =

    work page doi:10.1002/2016je005175

  78. [80]

    and Fedorov, A

    Barabash, S. and Fedorov, A. and Sauvaud, J. J. and Lundin, R. and Russell, C. T. and Futaana, Y. and Zhang, T. L. and Andersson, H. and Brinkfeldt, K. and Grigoriev, A. and Holmström, M. and Yamauchi, M. and Asamura, K. and Baumjohann, W. and Lammer, H. and Coates, A. J. and Kataria, D. O. and Linder, D. R. and Curtis, C. C. and Hsieh, K. C. and Sandel, ...

    work page doi:10.1038/nature06434

  79. [81]

    10.1051/0004-6361/201832934

    Why an intrinsic magnetic field does not protect a planet against atmospheric escape , DOI= "10.1051/0004-6361/201832934", url= "https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201832934", journal =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832934

  80. [82]

    and Eriksson, A

    Haaland, S. and Eriksson, A. and André, M. and Maes, L. and Baddeley, L. and Barakat, A. and Chappell, R. and Eccles, V. and Johnsen, C. and Lybekk, B. and Li, K. and Pedersen, A. and Schunk, R. and Welling, D. , title =. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics , volume =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JA021810 , url =

    work page doi:10.1002/2015ja021810

Showing first 80 references.