The formation pathways of compact elliptical galaxies

Compact elliptical (cE) galaxies remain an elusively difficult galaxy class to study. Recent observations have suggested that isolated and host-associated cEs have different formation pathways, while simulation studies have also shown different pathways can lead to a cE galaxy. However a solid link has not been established, and the relative contributions of each pathway in a cosmological context remains unknown. Here we combine a spatially-resolved observational sample of cEs taken from the SAMI galaxy survey with a matched sample of galaxies within the IllustrisTNG cosmological simulation to establish an overall picture of how these galaxies form. The observed cEs located near a host galaxy appear redder, smaller and older than isolated cEs, supporting previous evidence for multiple formation pathways. Tracing the simulated cEs back through time, we find two main formation pathways; 32 $\pm$ 5 percent formed via the stripping of a spiral galaxy by a larger host galaxy, while 68 $\pm$ 4 percent formed through a gradual build-up of stellar mass in isolated environments. We confirm that cEs in different environments do indeed form via different pathways, with all isolated cEs in our sample having formed via in-situ formation (i.e. none were ejected from a previous host), and 77 $\pm$ 6 percent of host-associated cEs having formed via tidal stripping. Separating them by their formation pathway, we are able to reproduce the observed differences between isolated and host-associated cEs, showing that these differences can be fully explained by the different formation pathways dominating in each environment.