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REVIEW 3 major objections 5 minor 140 references

Time-scales of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and dust continuum emission from gas clouds compared to molecular gas cloud lifetimes in PHANGS-JWST galaxies

T0 review · 3 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-07 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read In 17 nearby galaxy disks, gas clouds stay bright in JWST mid-infrared light for 10-30 Myr, about as long as they live in CO, and keep glowing 3-7 Myr after star formation becomes visible in H-alpha.

desk verdict A careful, well-documented measurement of mid-IR emission time-scales in 17 PHANGS galaxies; the headline result that mid-IR lifetimes track CO lifetimes is credible, though the overlap phase is partly a radiation-geometry effect and the paper says so. read the letter →

arxiv 2506.10063 v1 pith:GVKZYUFA submitted 2025-06-11 astro-ph.GA

Jaeyeon Kim , Mélanie Chevance , Lise Ramambason , Kathryn Kreckel , Ralf S. Klessen , Daniel A. Dale , Adam K. Leroy , Karin Sandstrom
show 19 more authors
Ryan Chown Thomas G. Williams Sumit K. Sarbadhicary Francesco Belfiore Frank Bigiel Enrico Congiu Oleg V. Egorov Eric Emsellem Simon C. O. Glover Kathryn Grasha Annie Hughes J. M. Diederik Kruijssen Janice C. Lee Debosmita Pathak Ismael Pessa Erik Rosolowsky Jiayi Sun Jessica Sutter David A. Thilker
This is my paper
classification astro-ph.GA
keywords starformationinterstellarcloudsmediumdiskgalaxiesextragalacticastronomyPAHemissionmolecularcloudlifetimesJWSTmid-infrared
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper uses JWST mid-infrared images of 17 nearby star-forming galaxies to clock how long gas clouds shine in PAH and dust emission before and during star formation. The authors find that a gas cloud's mid-IR-bright life lasts 10-30 Myr, nearly matching the molecular cloud lifetime measured in CO, and that the mid-IR glow persists another 3-7 Myr after H-alpha reveals young stars, covering 70-80% of the star-forming phase. The match with CO matters because mid-IR light traces gas that CO cannot see, including CO-dark and atomic gas. If the two tracers track the same clouds, then in these molecular-gas-rich, near-solar-metallicity disks, gas clouds become CO-bright almost as soon as they assemble.

What carries the argument

The machinery is the gas-to-star-formation flux-ratio method of Kruijssen & Longmore (2014) and Kruijssen et al. (2018): by measuring how the mid-IR-to-H-alpha flux ratio around emission peaks deviates from the galactic average as a function of aperture size (from roughly 100 pc to 3 kpc), the method converts the spatial decorrelation between a cold-gas tracer and a star-formation tracer into the durations of successive cloud phases. The analytical model has three free parameters, the mid-IR bright phase t_g, the mid-IR/H-alpha overlap (feedback) phase t_fb, and the typical separation between independent regions lambda, and it is anchored to absolute time by the H-alpha-bright phase duration t_s measured from CO in Kim et al. (2022). Diffuse emission on scales above about 1.5 kpc is filtered out with a Fourier-space Gaussian high-pass filter so that only compact clouds participating in the star-formation cycle are counted; on average 60% of mid-IR flux and 50% of H-alpha flux is diffuse and removed.

What would settle it

Resolve PAH and dust emission at scales well below 100 pc around individual H II regions in a nearby target such as NGC 0628 and re-measure the mid-IR/H-alpha overlap: the paper itself states that if PAH suppression cavities are resolved, the 3-7 Myr feedback time-scale should shorten, which would show that the long overlap, and part of the claimed cloud lifetime, is an artifact of unresolved shell emission.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

On the paper's own terms, the discovery is that the compact mid-IR emitting phase of a gas cloud is nearly identical in duration to the CO-emitting molecular cloud phase, with the two time-scales agreeing to within 1.1-1.3 times in most of the 17 galaxies. The mid-IR phase lasts 10-30 Myr (average 18+/-5, 18+/-4, and 23+/-5 Myr at 7.7, 10, and 11.3 microns), and the mid-IR-only phase dark in CO is consistent with zero (-3+/-6 to +3+/-5 Myr across bands), which the authors read as rapid shielding: once a cloud assembles into a compact mid-IR-bright structure, it quickly becomes dense enough for stable CO. After H-alpha-visible star formation begins, mid-IR emission persists for 3-7 Myr (average about 6 Myr), covering 70-80% of the H-alpha-bright phase and exceeding the CO-H-alpha overlap by 2-3 Myr, because young stars keep illuminating surrounding PAHs and dust after CO disperses. The same measurements show significant galaxy-to-galaxy variation and a longer mid-IR phase in galaxies with cleanly defined H II regions and smooth backgrounds, interpreted as more efficient heating of the ambient ISM by escaping photons.

Load-bearing premise

The whole clock rests on the assumption that 7.7-11.3 micron emission traces the gas column density of the same compact cloud population that later becomes H-alpha-bright; if much of that light comes from dust grains heated immediately beside H II regions, or is suppressed where PAHs are destroyed, the measured time-scales would describe radiation geometry around star-forming regions rather than cloud lifetimes.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • Mid-IR emission at 7.7-11.3 microns can stand in for CO as a cloud-scale gas tracer in molecular-gas-rich, near-solar-metallicity disks, reaching gas that CO misses and giving roughly 100 pc views of disks outside the Local Group.
  • Because the CO-dark mid-IR phase is nearly zero, the conversion from assembled neutral or CO-dark clouds to CO-bright molecular clouds is fast, at most a few Myr, in these environments rather than a long delay.
  • The 3-7 Myr mid-IR/H-alpha overlap implies that PAHs and dust survive around H II regions for most of the H-alpha-bright lifetime, so the grain reservoir that mid-IR traces is dispersed more slowly than the CO that traces the molecular gas.
  • Galaxy-to-galaxy variation in t_g (10-30 Myr) and its correlation with the sharpness of H II regions means the shape of the ISM around star-forming regions sets how long mid-IR light lingers, an input for simulations that model feedback and dust heating at cloud scale.
  • The near-unity ratio of mid-IR to CO lifetimes, together with the near-zero CO-dark phase, strengthens the timeline in which clouds assemble, quickly become CO-bright, and are dispersed by pre-supernova feedback within a few Myr of H-alpha appearance.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • A corollary the paper leaves implicit: if roughly 60% of 7.7-11.3 micron flux is diffuse and outside the compact cloud cycle, then global mid-IR-to-star-formation scaling relations are dominated by the diffuse ISM, and only the compact fraction can be read as a cloud-scale star-formation clock.
  • The sharpest untested version of the shielding claim is quantitative: at fixed metallicity, the ratio t_midIR_g/t_CO_g should track the molecular gas fraction, since the CO-bright phase is short in atomic-gas-dominated disks; a sample spanning f_H2 from about 0.1 to 0.7 would separate shielding speed from CO sensitivity effects that the paper could only partially correct for.
  • The paper attributes the smaller mid-IR separation lengths (110-130 pc) versus CO (230 pc) to resolution, but if that gap is partly physical, mid-IR reveals a finer-grained population of clouds evolving independently, which a matched-resolution CO run could distinguish from the resolution explanation.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper applies the Kruijssen et al. (2018) statistical method to PHANGS-JWST F770W, F1000W, and F1130W images together with PHANGS-MUSE Halpha maps for 17 galaxies, measuring the mid-IR emitting time-scale t_g, the mid-IR/Halpha overlap (feedback) time-scale t_fb, and the region separation length lambda. The authors report disk-averaged mid-IR emitting phases of 10-30 Myr (means 18, 18, and 23 Myr for 7.7, 10, and 11.3 um), overlap phases of 3-7 Myr covering 70-80% of the Halpha-emitting phase, and ratios t_midIR_g / t_CO_g of about 1.1, 1.1, and 1.3. They additionally derive diffuse emission fractions, CO-dark mid-IR phases, and correlations with galaxy properties, interpreting the results as evidence that compact mid-IR emission traces the gas column and that CO becomes stable very soon after gas clouds assemble.

Significance. If the interpretation holds, this is a valuable extension of the GMC lifecycle framework to a tracer of gas that is not limited to CO-bright molecular gas, with implications for CO-dark gas, feedback time-scales, and the ISM phases traced by JWST. The paper benefits from public PHANGS data, a method previously validated on simulations, and several explicit robustness checks: bright-peak masking (Appendix C), extinction-corrected Halpha tests (Section 2.2), diffuse filtering sensitivity (Section 3), and a detailed accuracy assessment (Appendix B). The diffuse emission fractions agree with independent estimates from Verley et al. (2009) and Belfiore et al. (2022), which lends credibility to the measurements themselves. However, the central interpretation that the measured mid-IR time-scales are gas-cloud lifetimes rests on an assumption the paper itself states only conditionally in Section 6, and the overlap phase is the most sensitive part of that assumption.

major comments (3)
  1. [Section 4.2 and Section 6] The headline claim that the mid-IR emitting time-scale closely matches the CO cloud lifetime (t_midIR_g / t_CO_g = 1.1-1.3) depends on the assumption, stated in Section 6, that mid-IR emission traces gas column density. The paper acknowledges in Section 4.2 that the emission is influenced by radiation, PAH abundance, and dust properties, and that the method is flux-weighted toward bright peaks. The overlap phase t_fb is particularly exposed: PAH emission is powered by UV/optical photons, PAH destruction inside H II regions can produce shell-like morphology, and at the 50-150 pc working resolution such shells would appear co-spatial with Halpha. That means t_fb/t_s = 70-80% could largely reflect the illumination geometry around star-forming regions rather than the survival time of a gas cloud. I request a concrete test of this assumption using the data already available: construct synthetic mid-IR maps as a linear combination of the observed CO and Halpha maps (following the empirical decomposition in Leroy et al. 2023) with known input phase time-scales, run them through the Heisenberg pipeline, and show that the inferred t_g and t_fb recover the input values. Without such a test or a similarly direct validation, the physical interpretation of t_g as a gas-cloud lifetime and the agreement with CO lifetimes remain conditional.
  2. [Section 3 and Table 2] The absolute time-scales are calibrated using the externally adopted Halpha-bright phase duration t_s from Kim et al. (2022), and for NGC 3627 t_s is only an upper limit. The ratio t_midIR_g / t_CO_g benefits from using the same reference in both tracers, but the absolute values quoted in the abstract and conclusions (10-30 Myr, 3-7 Myr, 70-80%) do not include this external calibration uncertainty. The paper should explicitly state in Section 4.2 that all absolute time-scales inherit the uncertainty in t_s, and ideally recompute the quoted averages with t_s varied by its per-galaxy uncertainties to show how much the mean values shift. This is not a fatal issue because the relative comparisons are robust, but it is necessary for the headline numbers to be fully self-contained.
  3. [Section 5.2 and Figure 13] The detection of long CO-bright ridges with CO-to-PAH flux ratios above 5 in NGC 1566 and NGC 4321 shows that mid-IR is not a pure column tracer even in the quiet phase, and the paper interprets these as regions where the CO-mid-IR correlation breaks down. This is useful evidence, but the paper does not quantify what fraction of the analyzed disk area or what fraction of the identified emission peaks in the full sample are affected by such decorrelation. If the affected area is small, the global time-scales are probably robust; if it is non-negligible, the fitted t_g could be biased in other galaxies as well. Please add a simple statistic: for each galaxy, the fraction of the analyzed area where |log10(I_CO / I_scaled_F770W)| exceeds a threshold (e.g., 0.7, corresponding to the factor-5 ridges), and test whether excluding those areas from the flux-ratio measurements changes t_g and t_fb by more than the quoted 1-sigma errors.
minor comments (5)
  1. [Throughout] The text repeatedly uses the formatting 'Hiiregions'; this should be 'H II regions' in the final journal version.
  2. [Section 4.2] The definition of t_midIR_CO-dark = t_X_g - t_X_fb - (t_CO_g - t_CO_fb) yields negative average values, which is counterintuitive for a duration; please clarify the sign convention and consider renaming the quantity to something like 'mid-IR phase not coincident with CO or Halpha' to avoid confusion.
  3. [Section 5.1.3] The interpretation of the correlation with epsilon_Halpha would be clearer if the paper explicitly stated that epsilon_Halpha is the peak-to-average flux density contrast on the diffuse-filtered map, and that the connection to 'well-defined H II regions' is indirect; as written, the causal language in the text is stronger than the observable directly supports.
  4. [Table 3 caption] There is a typo in the caption: 'diffuse emission fractions of mid-Ir' should be 'mid-IR'.
  5. [Appendix B] The accuracy checks are thorough and well presented; in the final version, please ensure the reference to 'Egorov et al. 2023, in preperation' is updated to the published or arXiv version and the misspelling corrected.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 2.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the central t_g, t_fb, and lambda values are fitted from new JWST mid-IR/H-alpha flux-ratio data, and the comparison with CO lifetimes is not forced by construction.

full rationale

The paper's central time-scales t_g, t_fb, and lambda are fitted to observed mid-IR-to-H-alpha flux-ratio curves using the Kruijssen et al. (2018) model, so they are measurements of new JWST data rather than restatements of the inputs. The main same-team dependencies are the reference time-scale t_s from Kim et al. (2022) and the method itself from Kruijssen et al. (2018); these are calibration and methodology inputs, not the derived quantities. In the key comparison t_midIR_g/t_CO_g, the shared t_s cancels because both the mid-IR and CO lifetimes are normalized by the same reference, so the reported ratio is not an artifact of the shared calibration. The assumption that 7.7-11.3 micron emission traces gas column density is explicitly acknowledged in the conclusions and is a physical premise, not a circular derivation. The diffuse-emission filter uses the fitted lambda iteratively until convergence, but this is a self-consistent estimation procedure rather than an identity by construction, and the paper cites simulation-based validation for the approach. No fitted parameter is relabeled as an independent prediction, and the CO comparison rests on independent ALMA data. The analysis is therefore self-contained in its derivation, with honest caveats about tracer assumptions.

Assumptions & free parameters 6 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central measurements depend on three fitted parameters per galaxy and band (t_g, t_fb, λ), a filtering scale choice (nλ), and the externally measured t_s. The analysis also inherits the assumptions of the Kruijssen-Longmore method, especially that mid-IR emission traces gas column density and that regions evolve independently. No new physical entities are postulated.

free parameters (6)
  • t_g (mid-IR emitting time-scale) = 11-35 Myr depending on galaxy and band (Table 3)
    Fitted per galaxy per band from mid-IR-to-Hα flux ratio vs aperture size using the Heisenberg model.
  • t_fb (mid-IR/Hα overlap time-scale) = 3.5-8.0 Myr (Table 3)
    Fitted alongside t_g; represents the overlap phase duration.
  • λ (region separation length) = 57-194 pc (Table 3)
    Fitted parameter describing the typical separation between independent star-forming regions; also used to set the diffuse filtering scale.
  • nλ (filtering scale factor) = integer, e.g., 2 for many galaxies
    Chosen as the lowest integer such that flux loss from compact emission is <10%, following Hygate et al. (2019). This choice affects how much diffuse flux is removed.
  • t_s (Hα bright phase duration) = 5.49-9.01 Myr (adopted from Kim et al. 2022; Table 2)
    Adopted reference time-scale from prior work; all absolute time-scales scale with t_s.
  • δlog10F, Δlog10F, Npix,min = listed in Table 2 per galaxy and band
    Peak identification parameters chosen per galaxy and band. The paper states results are not highly sensitive to these.
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption Cloud lifecycle model: gas clouds evolve through sequential phases (mid-IR bright, Hα bright, overlap) with fixed durations.
    Core of the Kruijssen & Longmore (2014) framework, adopted from the method papers; not derived here.
  • domain assumption Emission in an aperture originates solely from regions inside it after diffuse filtering, and regions evolve independently.
    Stated in Section 3; needed to relate flux ratios to time-scales.
  • domain assumption Mid-IR emission traces gas column density in the analyzed regions.
    Explicitly stated in the Conclusions; if false, time-scales would not reflect cloud lifetimes.
  • standard math Hα emission traces recent massive star formation and marks the end of the cloud phase.
    Standard assumption in this field; used by the method.
  • domain assumption t_s from Kim et al. (2022) is an accurate calibration of the Hα-bright phase duration.
    The absolute time-scales are anchored to this external measurement.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Time-scales of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and dust continuum emission from gas clouds compared to molecular gas cloud lifetimes in PHANGS-JWST galaxies." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/GVKZYUFA

@misc{pith2026250610063,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Time-scales of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and dust continuum emission from gas clouds compared to molecular gas cloud lifetimes in PHANGS-JWST galaxies},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/GVKZYUFA}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2506.10063}
}
abstract

Recent JWST mid-infrared (mid-IR) images, tracing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and dust continuum emission, provide detailed views of the interstellar medium (ISM) in nearby galaxies. Leveraging PHANGS-JWST Cycle 1 and PHANGS-MUSE data, we measure the PAH and dust continuum emission lifetimes of gas clouds across 17 nearby star-forming galaxies by analyzing the relative spatial distributions of mid-IR (7.7-11.3$\mu$m) and H$\alpha$ emission at various scales. We find that the mid-IR emitting time-scale of gas clouds in galaxy disks (excluding centers) ranges from 10 to 30Myr. After star formation is detected in H$\alpha$, mid-IR emission persists for 3-7Myr during the stellar feedback phase, covering 70-80% of the H$\alpha$ emission. This significant overlap is due to intense radiation from star-forming regions, illuminating the surrounding PAHs and dust grains. In most galaxies, the mid-IR time-scale closely matches the molecular cloud lifetime measured with CO. Although mid-IR emission is complex as influenced by ISM distribution, radiation, and abundances of dust and PAHs, the similarity between the two time-scales suggests that once gas clouds form with compact mid-IR emission, they quickly provide sufficient shielding for stable CO formation. This is likely due to our focus on molecular gas-rich regions of galaxies with near-solar metallicity. Finally, we find that the mid-IR emitting time-scale is longer in galaxies with well-defined HII regions and less structured backgrounds, allowing photons to more efficiently heat the ambient ISM surrounding the HII regions, rather than contributing to diffuse emission. This suggests that the shape of the ISM also influences mid-IR emission.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2506.10063 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Top: Composite three color images created using CO (blue), Hα (red), and mid-IR (green) observations, where each panel from left to right uses mid-IR emission of F770W, F1000W, and F1130W, respectively. The mid-IR observations have been convolved and regridded to match the coarser resolution and pixel grid of of Hα observations (see Section 2.3). For visualization purposes, a power-law brightness scale with gamma co… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. The measured deviations of mid-IR-to-Hα flux ratio compared to the galactic average value are shown as a function of size-scale. The top branch is when the apertures are focused on mid-IR peaks and the bottom is when the apertures are focused on Hα peaks. Shaded region indicates the effective 1σ error, after the covariance between data points is taken into account. The same measurements but using CO as the gas trace… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Distributions of physical quantities listed in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_3.png] view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (29 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The multi-tracer timeline of cloud evolution in PHANGS-JWST galaxies. From left to right, clouds are initially inert, being detected only in CO and mid-IR, tracing the cold gaseous phase. Star formation then takes place, causing gas tracers to become coincident with Hα…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Comparisons of mid-IR emitting time-scales obtained using different bands (t 7.7,µm g , t 10,µm g , and t 11.3,µm g ). The average ratio between two time-scales and the 1σ distributions are indicated in each panel. The solid line indicates the relation using the averag…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_6.png]
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients measured between galaxy properties (columns; Section 5.1) and our mea￾surements (rows; Section 4). From (a) to (c), correlations obtained using different mid-IR bands (7.7, 10, and 11.3 µm) are shown, respectively. Statistically…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: The ratio between the compact mid-IR emitting time-scale (t mid−IR g ) and molecular gas cloud lifetime (t CO g ) shows negative trends with metallicity and molecular gas surface density, which are in line with theoretical expectations. Data points (circles) in the lef…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p021_9.png]
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Strong correlations identified between our measurements of time-scales and galaxy properties. The data points (circles) in the left panel shows a correlation between the 10 µm emitting time-scale (t 10 µm g ) as function of the flux density contrast measured between p…
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p022_11.png]
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p024_12.png]
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Galaxies with the most negative t 7.7 µm CO−dark have molecular gas ridges with unusually high CO-to-PAH flux ratios (magenta in top two rows; NGC 1566 and NGC 4321), indicating that the tight correlation between F770W and CO flux is broken. This leads to an isolated …
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: The time from neutral gas cloud formation to the onset of star formation traced with mid-IR (ramp up time-scale; t mid−IR rampup ) is compared to that measured with CO (t CO rampup), as well as to analytical predictions from Sun et al. (2022), which are related to the…
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: The fraction of the Hα emitting phase associated with 7.7 µm emission (t 7.7 µm fb /ts) as a function of the average PAH abundance in Hii regions (< RPAH,Neb > Sutter et al. 2024). Data points are color-coded by the average ionization parameter (< log U >), which is t…
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Top: Composite three color images of NGC 1087 created using CO (blue), Hα (red), and mid-IR (green) ob￾servations. Each panel, from left to right, represents mid-IR emission of F770W, F1000W, and F1130W, respectively. The mid-IR observations have been convolved and re…
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p032_17.png]
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p032_18.png]
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p033_19.png]
Figure 20
Figure 20. Figure 20: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p034_20.png]
Figure 21
Figure 21. Figure 21: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p034_21.png]
Figure 22
Figure 22. Figure 22: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p035_22.png]
Figure 23
Figure 23. Figure 23: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p036_23.png]
Figure 24
Figure 24. Figure 24: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p037_24.png]
Figure 25
Figure 25. Figure 25: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p038_25.png]
Figure 26
Figure 26. Figure 26: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p039_26.png]
Figure 27
Figure 27. Figure 27: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p040_27.png]
Figure 28
Figure 28. Figure 28: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p041_28.png]
Figure 29
Figure 29. Figure 29: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p042_29.png]
Figure 30
Figure 30. Figure 30: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p043_30.png]
Figure 31
Figure 31. Figure 31: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p044_31.png]
Figure 32
Figure 32. Figure 32: Top: The flux contrast (δlog10F) adopted dur￾ing the peak identification for mid-IR (square) and Hα (tri￾angles) observations shown as a function of the average fill￾ing factor (ζ). Across our analysis with each mid-IR band, shown as 7.7 µm (blue), 10 µm (green), and …

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 7, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.