Galaxy Superclusters and Their Complexes in the Cosmic Web

Maret Einasto

REVIEW 3 major objections 4 minor 227 references

Galaxy Superclusters and Their Complexes in the Cosmic Web

T0 review · 3 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-07 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read The nearby richest superclusters form a quasiregular 120–140 $h^{-1}$ Mpc lattice and lie in two perpendicular planes, a pattern the review traces to primordial dark-matter perturbations rather than to baryon acoustic oscillations.

desk verdict A genuinely useful supercluster review whose one new quantitative argument, the Section 14 anti-BAO mass contrast, is overstated and internally inconsistent with its own Table 1. read the letter →

arxiv 2505.22082 v2 pith:HPEUKXIJ submitted 2025-05-28 astro-ph.CO

Maret Einasto This is my paper

classification astro-ph.CO PACS 98.65.-r98.80.-k

keywords galaxysuperclusterscosmicweblarge-scalestructurequasiregularpatternsuperclusterplanesHo'oleilanabaryonacousticoscillationsLambdaCDMmodel

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This review tries to establish that the largest structures in the nearby Universe—rich galaxy superclusters and their complexes—are not scattered at random. It argues they form a quasiregular lattice with a characteristic spacing of 120–140 $h^{-1}$ Mpc, and that the richest superclusters lie in two perpendicular planes spanning several hundred megaparsecs. The claim matters because a regular lattice and flat planes on that scale would record processes from the very early Universe and would test whether the standard $\Lambda$CDM model can produce such order. The review also argues, from supercluster masses, that Ho'oleilana is not a baryon acoustic oscillation shell but part of this quasiregular pattern. If the arguments hold, theories of structure formation must explain a large-scale regularity and anisotropy that are not currently accounted for.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing object is the rich supercluster, defined as a connected high-density region of the cosmic web traced by galaxy groups and clusters through percolation or luminosity-density thresholds. The argument moves through three measured ingredients: the 120–140 $h^{-1}$ Mpc spacing between rich superclusters, quantified by the 3D distribution, correlation-function maxima, and a regularity periodogram; the two perpendicular supercluster planes; and the masses of the superclusters in the A1795 shell, computed from galaxy luminosities under a single mass-to-light ratio $M/L=300$. Comparing those shell masses with the mass of the central cluster A1795 is the step that rules out, for the review, the baryon-acoustic-oscillation shell reading of Ho'oleilana and points instead to primordial dark-matter perturbations.

What would settle it

Measure the masses of the superclusters in the Ho'oleilana shell independently of luminosity—through weak gravitational lensing, X-ray gas, or cluster velocity dispersions—and compare the summed wall mass with the central cluster mass; baryon acoustic oscillation shells require a dominant central concentration, so finding walls as massive as or more massive than the centre would confirm the review's alternative, while finding a strong central mass would revive the BAO reading.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central discovery presented in this review is observational order on the largest scales: the richest superclusters in the nearby Universe are spaced at a characteristic distance of 120–140 $h^{-1}$ Mpc and are arranged along two roughly perpendicular planes, the Local Supercluster plane and the Dominant supercluster plane. This pattern is traced independently by rich Abell clusters, by SDSS galaxy groups, and by the velocity field, and it appears in the cluster correlation function as repeated maxima and in a regularity periodogram. The same pattern is visible as a nearly spherical shell of rich superclusters and giant voids centred on the cluster A1795 in Bootes. The review uses the masses of the superclusters on this shell, estimated from luminosities with $M/L=300$, to argue that the shell walls are far more massive than the central cluster, contradicting the baryon-acoustic-oscillation interpretation of Ho'oleilana. It concludes that the origin of the regular pattern lies in the primordial dark-matter perturbation field and leaves open whether $\Lambda$CDM can reproduce it.

Load-bearing premise

The mass comparison that rejects the BAO interpretation of Ho'oleilana assumes every supercluster's luminosity corresponds to the same mass-to-light ratio $M/L=300$ and that the shell walls were correctly identified in the supercluster catalogue; if the ratio varies with environment, the masses of the shell walls could shift enough to change the conclusion.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

If rich superclusters are really spaced at 120–140 $h^{-1}$ Mpc, then volume-limited supercluster surveys at higher redshift should show the same spacing rather than a random distribution.
The two perpendicular planes imply that galaxy cluster alignments should extend to separations of several hundred megaparsecs, and the paper cites recent evidence of alignments at 200–300 Mpc as consistent with this.
A non-BAO origin for Ho'oleilana means the 120–140 $h^{-1}$ Mpc scale should not be used as a standard ruler anchored to baryon physics; it would instead trace the dark-matter perturbation spectrum.
If the pattern is primordial, the standard $\Lambda$CDM model must explain why very large simulations rarely produce such a regular lattice and such extended planes, a comparison the review explicitly leaves open.
Supercluster high-density cores, as future-collapsing structures, become a cosmological probe: their abundance and mass distribution in the nearby Universe can be counted and compared with simulations.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

One testable extension: run the same percolation and luminosity-density supercluster finder on large $\Lambda$CDM simulation boxes and ask how often a periodic 120–140 $h^{-1}$ Mpc spacing and two perpendicular planes appear; the review notes the question is open, so this would turn the claim into a measurement.
The anti-BAO case could be checked directly by replacing the $M/L=300$ masses in Table 1 with dynamical or lensing masses; if the wall masses fall, the Ho'oleilana BAO interpretation may survive.
If a primordial origin is right, the quasiregular spacing should also be imprinted on CMB lensing or on the large-scale velocity field at redshifts where superclusters cannot yet be catalogued.
A sharper definition of supercluster—one tied to future collapse or to basins of attraction rather than to percolation—could change which structures define the lattice; testing the pattern's stability across definitions would tell whether it is a catalogue artefact or a physical scale.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

First thing to know: this is a review, not a new result, and the only genuinely new quantitative content—Section 14's anti-BAO mass argument—doesn't survive arithmetic checks against the paper's own Table 1. Second thing: the review is still worth having. It's the most complete recent survey of supercluster science, written by the person who co-founded much of it, and it's honest about what remains open.

The descriptive core is solid. Definitions, catalogues, morphology, mass estimation, environment effects, great walls, planes, and the claimed 120–140 h^-1 Mpc regularity are covered carefully, with good figures and a fair engagement with external work (eROSITA supercluster catalogues, Quipu, King Ghidorah, Planck tSZ maps). The citation pattern leans heavily on the Tartu group, but that is where most of this line of work was done; it is not a damaging parochialism. The abstract's framing—that the origin of the regular pattern and the planes is an open question, and whether they fit ΛCDM is unresolved—is appropriately measured.

The soft spot is Section 14. The text says the shell-wall superclusters are "more than one hundred times" more massive than the central cluster A1795. From Table 1, the largest wall supercluster is 3.5 x 10^16 Msun and A1795 is 0.066–0.112 x 10^16, a ratio of at most about 50. The same paragraph claims the shell walls hold at least 25 x 10^16 Msun total, but Table 1 sums to about 6.6 x 10^16 in the M/L column and 7.4 x 10^16 in the group-mass column. The masses themselves assume a single M/L = 300 with no error bars, while the review elsewhere notes that M/L varies with supercluster richness and environment. So the mass-contrast argument reads as an interpretive plausibility point, not a quantitative disproof of the BAO reading. The author's other anti-BAO arguments—the pattern's scale is 120–140 h^-1 Mpc rather than the ~109 h^-1 Mpc BAO scale, and the structures are thick rather than thin shells—stand independently and are not affected.

Bottom line: send it to peer review, but require the Section 14 arithmetic to be fixed and the M/L assumption to be either propagated with uncertainties or softened. The review itself is a genuinely useful reference; I'd point a new student to it. I just wouldn't lean on the new mass argument as it stands.

Referee Report

3 major / 4 minor

Summary. This review article by Maret Einasto surveys the definition, catalogues, morphology, masses, environment, and large-scale distribution of galaxy superclusters, with emphasis on the richest superclusters in the nearby Universe, their complexes (Sloan Great Wall, BOSS Great Wall), and the two perpendicular supercluster planes. The paper also re-analyzes the shell-like structure around the cluster A1795 (Ho'oleilana) and argues that the mass distribution of superclusters in its shell walls contradicts a baryon acoustic oscillation (BAO) interpretation. The review concludes that the quasiregular 120–140 h^-1 Mpc pattern and the supercluster planes represent an open question for ΛCDM cosmology.

Significance. The review provides a broad and useful synthesis of the observational literature on superclusters, including many recent results (eROSITA superclusters, Quipu, King Ghidorah, BOSS Great Wall, the A2142 supercluster, and others). Its strengths are the comprehensive summary of morphological, dynamical, and environmental studies, and the clear presentation of the author's group's extensive prior work. The new Table 1, if corrected, could serve as a useful compilation of masses for the superclusters in the A1795 shell. However, the quantitative anti-BAO argument in Section 14 currently contains arithmetic inconsistencies and relies on an unvalidated universal mass-to-light ratio; these issues must be resolved before that specific claim can be accepted.

major comments (3)

[Section 14, Table 1] The statement that the total mass in superclusters in the shell walls is "at least Mtot ≈ 25 × 10^16 M⊙" is not supported by Table 1. Summing the column-5 masses (M/L = 300) gives approximately 6.6 × 10^16 M⊙, and summing the column-6 group-based masses gives approximately 7.4 × 10^16 M⊙. Please re-check the summation and either correct the stated total or revise the sentence to report the actual sum.
[Section 14, Table 1] The claim that wall supercluster masses are "more than one hundred times higher than the mass of the central cluster A1795" is arithmetically inconsistent with the table and text. The largest column-5 mass in Table 1 is 1.72 × 10^16 M⊙ (SGW1), and the A1795 mass is given as 0.066–0.112 × 10^16 M⊙, which gives a ratio of roughly 15–26. Even if the text's 3.5 × 10^16 M⊙ upper value is used, the ratio is at most about 50. The factor of 100 is not supported by the data presented.
[Section 14, Table 1; Section 4] The anti-BAO argument relies on supercluster masses derived from a single mass-to-light ratio M/L = 300, with no error bars. This same review notes in Section 4 that mass-to-light ratio varies with environment: poor superclusters have M/L ≈ 400 while rich superclusters have M/L ≈ 250–300, and M/L is higher in supercluster outskirts. If an environment-dependent M/L were applied, the mass contrast between the shell walls and the central A1795 region could change substantially. Please propagate this uncertainty into the argument or add an explicit caveat that the central-versus-wall mass contrast is provisional.

minor comments (4)

[Section 14, first paragraph] The sentence beginning "In [45], the authors applied several methods..." is somewhat redundant with the preceding discussion of the quasiregular pattern; consider condensing for readability.
[Section 4, Eq. (6)] The notation in Eq. (6) is clear but the summation symbols would benefit from explicit limits (e.g., sums over member groups, clusters, and single galaxies) to avoid ambiguity.
[Section 7] In the discussion of fractal dimensions, the units are not always consistent: please use h^-1 Mpc for all distances and specify the smoothing/density limits for the ΛCDM curves in Figure 8.
[Data Availability Statement] The statement "No new data were created, except supercluster masses in Table 1" is helpful; I suggest adding a line on how the M/L = 300 value was chosen and whether uncertainties are available from the original sources.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the review's claims rest on published, independently checkable measurements and external benchmarks rather than on equations that reduce to their inputs.

full rationale

This paper is a review, not a derivation claiming to predict new phenomena from first principles. Its central claims — the quasiregular 120–140 h^-1 Mpc spacing of rich superclusters and the existence of supercluster planes — are presented as literature results supported by a mixture of the author's prior peer-reviewed work and independent groups, including Broadhurst et al. (1990), Park et al. (2012), Tully et al. (2023), Ryabinkov and Kaminker (2024), Peebles (2023), and Böhringer et al. (2021). The self-citations are load-bearing only in the sense that any review cites its author's own published findings, but those findings are independently published with external co-authors and are corroborated by non-overlapping datasets and methods; they are not imported as unverified uniqueness theorems or hidden ansatze. The one originally constructed argument, the Section 14 rejection of Ho'oleilana as a BAO shell, uses supercluster masses from Table 1 computed as luminosity times an explicit M/L = 300 assumption, together with the external claim from Arnalte-Mur et al. (2012) that BAO shells have central masses higher than wall masses. The comparison is a quantitative estimate, not a quantity defined so that the conclusion follows by construction. The paper does exhibit an internal arithmetic inconsistency: the stated 'at least Mtot ≈ 25 × 10^16 M⊙' is not reproduced by summing the Table 1 masses, which give roughly 6.6 × 10^16 M⊙ in column 5. That is a correctness or consistency problem that should be addressed in revision, but it is not circularity: no equation in the paper defines the anti-BAO conclusion into the assumed M/L or into the catalogue membership. No fitted parameter is renamed as a prediction, and no prior result is invoked solely to forbid an alternative. Therefore the derivation chain is self-contained and the circularity score is 0.

Assumptions & free parameters 1 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The paper is a review, so no new inventions are introduced. The only quantitative addition uses an assumed M/L ratio to estimate masses, and the interpretation depends on standard assumptions about tracing dark matter and the spherical collapse model.

free parameters (1)

Mass-to-light ratio M/L for superclusters = 300 (solar units)
Used in Section 14 and Table 1 to convert luminosities to masses for the superclusters around A1795, which is the basis for the argument that Ho'oleilana is not a BAO shell. The review earlier notes that M/L varies from about 400 for poor superclusters to 250-300 for rich ones, so a single value is a simplification.

assumptions (4)

domain assumption The LambdaCDM model with dark matter and dark energy is the standard framework for interpreting large-scale structure.
The paper asks whether supercluster patterns are compatible with LambdaCDM but does not test alternatives; this model is the background for all discussion.
domain assumption Superclusters identified by friend-of-friend linking length or density threshold trace the underlying dark matter distribution.
Section 2 describes these definitions; the review uses catalogues based on them to discuss the cosmic web and to compute masses.
domain assumption The spherical collapse model applies to high-density cores of superclusters.
Section 8 uses this model to estimate turnaround and future collapse radii and to compare HDC properties.
domain assumption No significant extra dark matter beyond that traced by galaxies, groups, and clusters exists in superclusters.
Section 5 concludes this from weak lensing studies; the mass estimates in the paper rely on this assumption.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Galaxy Superclusters and Their Complexes in the Cosmic Web." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/HPEUKXIJ

@misc{pith2026250522082,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Galaxy Superclusters and Their Complexes in the Cosmic Web},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/HPEUKXIJ}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2505.22082}
}

abstract

The richest and largest structures in the cosmic web are galaxy superclusters, their complexes (associations of several almost connected very rich superclusters), and planes. Superclusters represent a special environment where the evolution of galaxies and galaxy groups and clusters differs from the evolution of these systems in a low-density environment. The richest galaxy clusters reside in superclusters. The richest superclusters in the nearby Universe form a quasiregular pattern with the characteristic distance between superclusters 120 - 140 $h^{-1}$Mpc. Moreover, superclusters in the nearby Universe lie in two huge perpendicular planes with the extent of several hundreds of megaparsecs, the Local Supercluster plane and the Dominant supercluster plane. The origin of these patterns in the supercluster distribution is not yet clear, and it is an open question whether the presence of such structures can be explained within the $\Lambda$CDM cosmological model. This review presents a brief story of superclusters, their discovery, definitions, main properties, and large-scale distribution.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2505.22082 by the authors.

**Figure 1.** Slice of the density field from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey at distance of 240 h −1 Mpc with thickness of 10 h −1 Mpc in the SDSS survey coordinates, η and λ. At lower part of the figure the Sloan Great Wall is seen. Figure by Jaan Einasto. High-density regions of the cosmic web, which embed galaxies, groups, and clusters connected by filaments, are called galaxy superclusters. With their rich inner structure, su… view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** Multiplicity functions (which show the fraction of clusters in superclusters of different richness) MF of systems of Abell clusters versus FoF neighbourhood radius R. The solid line shows the fraction of isolated clusters. The short-dashed line shows the fraction of clusters in medium-rich systems with a number of members from 2 to 31. The dashed line shows the fraction of clusters in very rich systems with at least… view at source ↗

**Figure 1.** CDM model of the box size 512 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_1.png] view at source ↗

Figures from the paper (19 more)

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: The 3D distribution of rich (Abell) clusters in superclusters (white spheres) in supergalactic coordinates. Violet spheres show the location of X-ray clusters in superclusters. Note the signature of the Local supercluster plane in the centre of the figure (Section 13).…

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: Density field structures (thick red, orange, and dark blue coloured contours) detected with a single fixed density level Dn (upper panel) or with various individually derived thresholds (lower panel). Thin contours denote all available isodensity cuts of the density fi…

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: Visualization of the BoAs of Laniakea (in red) and the Apus, the Hercules, the Lepus, the Perseus-Pisces, and the Shapley superclusters, as well as the BoAs in the SDSS area (in purple). The basins shown are obtained from the ungrouped CosmicFlows-4 (CF4) velocity fiel…

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: Shapefinder’s K1-K2 plane for superclusters. The size of symbols is proportional to the diameters of superclusters. Red squares denote high-luminosity superclusters with the luminosity Lscl ≥ 4 × 1012 h −2L⊙ and the shape parameter K1/K2 < 0.5 (more elongated superclus…

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: Fractal dimension functions, D(r) = 3 + γ(r) for ΛCDM models for different particle selection limits (a), and for SDSS galaxies with five luminosity thresholds (b). Figure by Jaan Einasto [117]. At still larger scales, up to over 100 h −1 Mpc the correlation function o…

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: Density fields of simulation in the 256 h −1 Mpc box without additional smoothing (upper panels) and with a smoothing length 8 h −1 Mpc (lower panels). The panels from left to right show fields for epochs z = 30, z = 10, z = 3, and z = 0, presented in slices of size 20…

**Figure 10.** Figure 10: Mean values of the radial peculiar velocity component of haloes (blue line) as a function of the scaled distance from the supercluster center. The shaded blue region shows the 1 σ standard deviation of the radial peculiar velocity component of haloes. The red line sho…

**Figure 11.** Figure 11: Sky distribution of galaxies in and around the supercluster SCl A2142. Coloured dots denote galaxies in regions of different luminosity-density D8 as indicated in the legend. Galaxies in long filaments with length ≥20 h −1 Mpc are denoted with stars of dark red colour…

**Figure 12.** Figure 12: Density contrast ∆ρ = ρ/ρm versus supercluster-centric distance Dc for the SCl A2142 main body (red line). Golden area shows error corridor from mass errors. Characteristic density contrasts are denoted as follows: ∆ρ = 13.1 (turnaround, blue dashed line), ∆ρ = 8.73 (…

**Figure 13.** Figure 13: Distribution of galaxies in the BGW superclusters in the sky plane. Red dots denote galaxies in the HDCs of each supercluster, and blue dots show galaxies in the outskirts. Different shades of red and blue correspond to different BGW superclusters. Dark red circles sh…

**Figure 14.** Figure 14: Future collapse mass M versus the radius of the HDCs R in the Corona Borealis supercluster, in the A 2142 supercluster, in the SGW superclusters and in the BGW superclusters at redshifts z = 0 (right points), z = 0.5 (middle points), and z = 1 (left points), as liste…

**Figure 15.** Figure 15: Λ significance diagram for SDSS clusters of galaxies (purple) with quasispherical superclusters marked in green. The Laniakea supercluster, the central regions of the supercluster A2142 and the Coma cluster with three different mass and size estimates are shown. Incl…

**Figure 16.** Figure 16: Global luminosity-density D8 versus distance from the nearest filament axis Df il for galaxy groups and clusters of various luminosity. Dark red circles refer to groups with luminosity Lgr ≥ 100 × 1010h −2L⊙, red circles- groups with luminosity 43 ≤ Lgr ≤ 100 × 1010h …

**Figure 17.** Figure 17: Fractions of high- and low-luminosity groups and single galaxies (HLG, LLG, and Single, correspondingly) (divided according to the star formation properties of galaxies in groups and among single galaxies) in regions of various global luminosity-density D8. Global den…

**Figure 18.** Figure 18: Central part of the Shapley Supercluster within a redshift range of 0.03 < z < 0.083. White stars mark galaxy clusters from [188]. The colour scale represents the galaxy number density, normalised by the median density in each pixel. The outer orange solid contours an…

**Figure 19.** Figure 19: , is one of those structures which led to the discovery of the cosmic web [1,40]. The Perseus-Pisces supercluster is also the first supercluster for which it was found that galaxy clusters in it are elongated along the supercluster axis. The brightest cluster galaxies…

**Figure 20.** Figure 20: Distribution of galaxy groups in the Sloan Great Wall superclusters in the sky plane in the redshift range 0.04 < z < 0.12. Different colours refer to individual superclusters in the SGW; superclusters 1 and 2 are the two richest SGW superclusters. Grey symbols show g…

**Figure 21.** Figure 21: Distribution of galaxies of the BGW superclusters in the sky plane. Red dots denote galaxies in the HDCs of each supercluster, and blue dots show galaxies in the outskirts. Different shades of red and blue correspond to different BGW superclusters, as shown in the fig…

**Figure 22.** Figure 22: Distribution of galaxy groups in superclusters in Cartesian coordinates in h −1 Mpc. Redfilled circles denote clusters with the number of member galaxies, Ngal ≥ 50, and blue-filled circles denote clusters with 30 ≤ Ngal ≤ 50 in a distance interval of 90 ≤ D ≤ 140 h …

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