Pith. sign in

REVIEW 5 major objections 5 minor 151 references

Leonessa: An Extremely Metal-poor Galaxy Undergoing Secular Chemical Evolution

T0 review · 5 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-05 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗

Pith's one-line read The metal-poor dwarf galaxy Leonessa is too bright for its metallicity because of young stars, not gas infall or interactions.

desk verdict A solid single-galaxy benchmark: new TRGB distance moves Leonessa from an LZR-conformer to an outlier, and the SF-luminosity explanation is plausible though its foundation is a sparse RGB and a 4.4-sigma HI detection. read the letter →

arxiv 2508.09248 v1 pith:J46QQLH4 submitted 2025-08-12 astro-ph.GA

Joseph A. Breneman , Kristen B. W. McQuinn , Alexander Menchaca , Danielle A. Berg , O. Grace Telford , Max J. B. Newman , Andrew Dolphin , Gregory R. Zeimann This is my paper
classification astro-ph.GA
keywords extremelymetal-poorgalaxiesdwarfgalaxychemicalevolutionTRGBdistanceluminosity-metallicityrelationmass-metallicityHIgascontentdirectmethodoxygenabundancevoid
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper sets out to establish what kind of chemically primitive galaxy Leonessa is and why it looks too bright for its metal content. Resolving its stars with Hubble, the authors measure a tip-of-the-red-giant-branch distance of $15.86\pm0.78$ Mpc -- about six times farther than the earlier flow-model estimate -- and derive a gas-phase oxygen abundance of $12+\log(\mathrm{O/H})=7.32\pm0.04$, a stellar mass of $\log(M_\star/M_\odot)=6.12\pm0.08$, and an H I mass of $(2.10\pm0.56)\times10^6\,M_\odot$. At this distance Leonessa is an isolated, gas-rich dwarf that sits on the mass-metallicity relation but is an outlier on the luminosity-metallicity relation. The paper argues the luminosity offset is due to recent star formation: roughly 25 upper-main-sequence O/B stars contribute about 1.1 mag of g-band light, and removing that contribution brings Leonessa within $1\sigma$ of the luminosity-metallicity relation. The conclusion is that Leonessa is following the secular, outflow-dominated chemical evolution typical of field dwarf galaxies, not the interaction-and-dilution pathway invoked for many other extremely metal-poor galaxies.

What carries the argument

Three pieces of machinery carry the argument. (1) The TRGB distance indicator: a GLOESS-smoothed F814W luminosity function of the resolved red giants, convolved with a Sobel edge-detection kernel, locates the tip at F814W$_0 = 26.95 \pm 0.10$ mag; combined with a Freedman (2021) zero point this gives distance modulus $31.00 \pm 0.10$ and $D = 15.86 \pm 0.78$ Mpc. (2) The direct-method abundance analysis: electron temperature from the [O III] $\lambda4363/\lambda5007$ ratio, O$^+$ and O$^{++}$ ionic abundances summed to yield $12+\log(\mathrm{O/H}) = 7.32 \pm 0.04$, and N$^+$/O$^+$ from [N II] $\lambda6584$/[O II] $\lambda3727$ to give $\log(\mathrm{N/O}) = -1.41 \pm 0.2$. (3) The star-format

What would settle it

Deep HST or JWST imaging of Leonessa that recovers several hundred red giant branch stars: if the F814W luminosity function shows no sharp Sobel peak near F814W$_0 = 26.95$, or the peak shifts by more than the quoted ~0.1 mag, the TRGB distance is wrong. An independent distance indicator (Cepheids, or a full star-formation-history fit) would also settle whether the 1.1 mag upper-main-sequence correction is the true cause of the LZR offset.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that Leonessa is an extremely metal-poor dwarf galaxy whose apparent disagreement with the luminosity-metallicity relation is a star-formation artifact rather than evidence of an unusual enrichment history. The authors place Leonessa on the MZR with a direct-method oxygen abundance and TRGB-based stellar mass, while showing it lies above the LZR by about 2.4 mag in g-band luminosity at the new distance. They identify 25 upper-main-sequence stars (approximately 13% of the 194 recovered stars) as the likely cause of the enhancement: subtracting their light reduces $M_g$ by about 1.1 mag and brings Leonessa within $1\sigma$ of the LZR. Because Leonessa is isolated (nearest

Load-bearing premise

The TRGB measurement at F814W$_0 = 26.95$ is assumed to be the true tip of the red giant branch, but it comes from a catalog of only 194 stars with even fewer RGB stars; if that edge is a small-number fluctuation or is contaminated by AGB stars or blue stragglers, the distance, luminosity, stellar mass, and H I mass all shift, and the MZR/LZR conclusions change.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • A TRGB-based distance is essential for placing XMP dwarfs on scaling relations: the old flow-model distance put Leonessa roughly 2.4 mag fainter and changed its LZR classification entirely.
  • If the 1.1 mag correction is correct, current star formation alone can explain LZR offsets in isolated low-mass XMP galaxies without requiring interactions, mergers, or pristine-gas accretion.
  • Stellar mass is a more robust predictor of gas-phase metallicity than luminosity for this system; luminosity-based metallicity calibrations will systematically misplace young, star-forming XMP dwarfs.
  • The anti-correlation between gas-phase oxygen abundance and $M_{\mathrm{HI}}/M_\star$ across 150 comparison galaxies supports gas content as a major axis of chemical evolution, but Leonessa's moderate gas fraction shows that high gas richness is not required to be an XMP galaxy.
  • Leonessa, Leo A, and Leo P form a small class of XMP dwarfs with gas fractions $\mu < 0.7$ and low effective yields, consistent with secular, outflow-dominated evolution rather than burst-and-dilution.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Because the TRGB detection rests on only 194 recovered stars, the distance and all derived quantities should be treated as provisional; a deeper catalog that doubles the RGB sample would either confirm the edge at F814W$_0 = 26.95$ or shift it.
  • If the same upper-main-sequence subtraction were applied to other compact XMP outliers with resolved stellar populations, their LZR offsets might shrink by comparable amounts, suggesting that bright young stars, not exotic enrichment histories, produce much of the apparent scatter.
  • The roughly 69 km/s difference between the optical and 21 cm redshifts could be an early signature of gas flows; high-resolution H I mapping of Leonessa would provide a direct test of whether outflows are indeed removing metals, as the low effective yield implies.
Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

5 major / 5 minor

Summary. This paper presents a multi-wavelength study of Leonessa (SDSS J100512.15+372201.5), an extremely metal-poor (XMP) dwarf galaxy. Using HST ACS imaging, the authors resolve 194 stars, measure a TRGB distance of 15.86 ± 0.78 Mpc, and derive an absolute g-band magnitude and stellar mass. HET LRS2 spectroscopy provides a direct-method oxygen abundance 12+log(O/H) = 7.32 ± 0.04 and log(N/O) = −1.41 ± 0.20. GBT 21 cm spectroscopy yields a 4.4σ H I detection, M_HI = (2.10 ± 0.56) × 10^6 M⊙, and a gas-to-stellar mass ratio of 1.61 ± 0.52. The authors place Leonessa on the mass–metallicity and luminosity–metallicity relations of Berg et al. (2012), finding agreement with the MZR but a ~1.1 mag offset from the LZR, which they attribute to light from 25 upper-main-sequence stars. A comparison sample of 150 dwarf galaxies (53 XMP) is compiled, and an anti-correlation between gas-phase oxygen abundance and H I gas-to-stellar mass ratio is claimed. The paper concludes that Leonessa is an isolated, void galaxy undergoing secular chemical evolution similar to Leo A and Leo P.

Significance. If the TRGB distance and the 1.1 mag SF-correction are accepted, this is one of the most complete portraits of an XMP dwarf in a void: direct-method metallicity, H I content, resolved-star distance, and environment are combined, and the paper sharpens the emerging distinction between gas-rich starburst XMP outliers and secular systems like Leo A and Leo P. The compilation of 150 direct-method dwarf galaxies, with a machine-readable table, is a useful community resource. I agree with the reader's assessment that the analysis is not circular: the comparisons use external Berg+12 relations and standard calibrations. However, the central interpretation is vulnerable to a small number of systematic choices, most notably the sparse TRGB measurement and the opaque luminosity correction, which currently need additional robustness tests.

major comments (5)
  1. [Section 3.3 and Figure 5] The TRGB is the load-bearing measurement. The CMD contains only 194 stars and the RGB polygon appears to contain only a few tens of stars; quoting a Sobel peak at F814W0 = 26.95 ± 0.10 from 5,000 Monte Carlo resamplings of the same catalog does not test whether the discontinuity is a real luminosity-function edge or a small-number fluctuation/AGB contamination. Since the text itself notes that 'some likely AGB stars' are inside the selection polygon, and since M_g, M_star, and M_HI all scale as D^2 (D = 15.86 ± 0.78 Mpc), a 0.2 mag tip error shifts those quantities by ~20% and can move Leonessa across the 1σ LZR. Please report jackknife/bootstrap tests dropping the brightest stars, alternative Sobel smoothing scales for Eq. (1), and variation of the RGB selection polygon; without these, the LZR-offset conclusion is not robust.
  2. [Section 7.1] The key correction that places Leonessa on the LZR—removing the luminosity contribution of 25 upper-MS stars to change M_g by ~1.1 mag—is not described. The paper should specify whether the 25 stars' DOLPHOT fluxes are summed and transformed to the SDSS g band using the TRGB distance, or whether the 100 Myr PARSEC isochrone is used, with which IMF, mass range, and completeness corrections. The selection at F814W ≤ 27.5 should be varied to test sensitivity. As written, the 1.1 mag value is an unsupported input to the central claim, not a result.
  3. [Section 6 and Section 8] The anti-correlation between 12+log(O/H) and log(M_HI/M*) is asserted from the color coding of Figures 6 and 8, but no correlation coefficient, rank statistic, or regression is reported. The sample is heterogeneous in distance method and H I SNR, and includes Leonessa's own 4.4σ H I detection (SHI = 35.51 ± 8.08 mJy km/s, 23% uncertainty). Please provide a rank correlation on a defined subset (e.g., galaxies with TRGB or Cepheid distances), with errors and upper limits treated explicitly; otherwise the abstract and conclusion overstate the result.
  4. [Section 5.3 and Section 6.1] The LZR analysis mixes absolute B-band magnitudes (LVL, void) and g-band magnitudes (many XMP galaxies) without a filter transformation. For star-forming XMP galaxies g−B can be nonzero, and the paper's own offset for Leonessa is only ~1.1 mag; a filter mismatch of even 0.2–0.3 mag affects outlier classifications. Provide the adopted g−B transformation or show that the XMP subset's g−B is negligible. Additionally, many XMP distances are from flow models; given that Leonessa's distance changed by a factor of 6 from such an estimate, a version of the LZR restricted to robust distances is needed.
  5. [Section 2.3 and Table 1] The 4.4σ H I detection yields M_HI = (2.10 ± 0.56) × 10^6 M⊙ with the quoted error including only statistical flux and distance errors. The 1.2 calibration scaling (Goddy et al. 2020) and baseline/continuum choices are not propagated into the systematic uncertainty. Since μ = 0.69 and M_HI/M* = 1.61 are used to distinguish Leonessa from extremely gas-rich XMPs, please present an alternate-baseline analysis and, if the detection remains marginal, treat the H I mass as an upper limit or add an explicit systematic term.
minor comments (5)
  1. [Facilities] The Facilities line lists 'HST (COS)', but the observations were obtained with ACS/WFC; this should be corrected.
  2. [Equation (1)] The notation in Eq. (1) is unclear: define M, M_n, and the adopted smoothing scale σ explicitly.
  3. [Table 3 note] The note refers to 'Column 16' when listing references; the correct column number appears to be 11.
  4. [Figure 5] In the right panel, the x-axis label and the normalization of the smoothed LF vs. Sobel response should be clarified, as the two curves are not directly comparable.
  5. [Abstract] '5% Solar' should be '5% solar' for consistency with journal style.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: Leonessa's properties are measured independently and compared to external relations; the SF-luminosity correction is a photometric estimate, not a fit to the LZR.

full rationale

The paper's derivation chain is self-contained against external benchmarks. The TRGB distance is measured from HST photometry using a standard GLOESS-smoothed Sobel edge detector and a Freedman (2021) zero-point calibration; no parameter is fitted to the MZR or LZR. The gas-phase oxygen abundance comes from a direct Te method using [O III] lambda4363, and the H I mass from a standard distance-squared integrated-flux formula. The stellar mass uses an externally calibrated M/L relation. Leonessa's position on the MZR and LZR is then compared to the Berg et al. (2012) relations, which are external to this paper. The key interpretive step—that removing ~1.1 mag of upper-main-sequence light brings Leonessa into agreement with the LZR—is an independent photometric estimate based on 25 identified upper-MS stars and a 100 Myr PARSEC isochrone; it is not a parameter adjusted to force agreement. Self-citations to McQuinn et al. (2020) provide definitions, coordinate formulas, and a comparison estimate for another galaxy, but none of these are load-bearing for the central conclusions. The sparse (194-star) TRGB detection is a legitimate robustness concern, but that is an observational uncertainty, not circular reasoning. No load-bearing step reduces by construction to its own inputs.

Assumptions & free parameters 0 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on standard calibrations (TRGB zero point, M/L ratios, Te relation) and external scaling relations from Berg+12; no new free parameters are introduced.

assumptions (6)
  • domain assumption TRGB absolute calibration for F814W (M = -4.049 +/- 0.038 mag) from Freedman 2021, used to convert apparent TRGB magnitude to distance.
    Invoked in Section 3.3 to derive the distance modulus of 31.00 +/- 0.10 mag.
  • domain assumption Bell et al. (2003) mass-to-light relation log(M*/L) = 0.006 + 1.114(r-i) (Eq. 2), used to derive stellar mass from SDSS magnitudes.
    Invoked in Section 3.3 to compute M* = (1.31 +/- 0.24) x 10^6 M_sun; central to the MZR comparison.
  • domain assumption Garnett (1992) electron temperature relation Te[OII] = 0.70 Te[OIII] + 3000 K (Eq. 3), used to compute O+ abundance.
    Invoked in Section 4.2 to estimate low-ionization zone temperature for the direct-method oxygen abundance.
  • domain assumption The Berg et al. (2012) LZR and MZR best-fit relations are adopted as external benchmarks to classify Leonessa as agreeing/disagreeing.
    Used throughout Section 6 to assess Leonessa's position; the conclusions depend on these relations being appropriate for low-mass field dwarfs.
  • domain assumption Direct-method assumption that O/H = O+/H+ + O++/H+ and that O0 and O3+ contributions are negligible.
    Invoked in Section 4.3 and standard for H II region analyses; with only optical lines available, higher ionization stages are not measured.
  • domain assumption Catalog distances from CF-4, P19-voids, and ALFALFA are accurate enough to establish that Leonessa is isolated within ~1.8 Mpc.
    Invoked in Section 3.4 to rule out interaction-triggered star formation; the authors acknowledge distance errors could change this characterization.

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Leonessa: An Extremely Metal-poor Galaxy Undergoing Secular Chemical Evolution." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/J46QQLH4

@misc{pith2026250809248,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Leonessa: An Extremely Metal-poor Galaxy Undergoing Secular Chemical Evolution},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/J46QQLH4}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2508.09248}
}
abstract

Extremely metal-poor (XMP) galaxies are systems with gas-phase oxygen abundances below $\sim$5% Solar metallicity (12+log(O/H)$\le$7.35). These galaxies populate the metal-poor end of the mass-metallicity and luminosity-metallicity relations (MZR and LZR, respectively). Recent studies have found XMP galaxies in the nearby Universe to be outliers on the LZR, where they show enhanced luminosities relative to other galaxies of similar gas-phase oxygen abundance. Here, we present a study of the recently discovered XMP galaxy Leonessa and characterize the system's properties using new imaging from the Hubble Space Telescope and spectra from the Green Bank Telescope and Hobby-Eberly Telescope. We use these observations to measure a tip of the red giant branch (TRGB) distance (15.86$\pm$0.78 Mpc) to Leonessa, the HI gas mass, the gas-phase oxygen abundance, and N/O ratio. We find Leonessa is an isolated, gas rich (gas fraction $\mu$=0.69), low-mass (log(M$_\star$/M$_\odot$)=6.12$\pm$0.08), XMP (12+log(O/H)=7.32$\pm$0.04), star-forming galaxy at a distance of 15.86$\pm$0.78 Mpc. Our measurements show that Leonessa agrees with the MZR, but disagrees with the LZR; we conclude the LZR offset is due to recent star formation enhancing the system's luminosity. To investigate possible chemical evolution pathways for nearby XMP galaxies we also compile a comparison sample of 150 dwarf galaxies (53 XMP systems) taken from the literature with gas-phase metallicity measurements based on the direct method. We find evidence for an anti-correlation between gas-phase oxygen abundance and HI gas-to-stellar mass ratios. We posit Leonessa is undergoing a chemical evolution pathway typical of field dwarf galaxies.

Discussion (0). Sign in to comment.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

151 extracted references · 33 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    2020, ApJS, 249, 3, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ab929e

    Ahumada, R., Allende Prieto, C., Almeida, A., et al. 2020, ApJS, 249, 3, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ab929e

    doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ab929e 2020

  2. [2]

    2013, AJ, 146, 144, doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/146/6/144

    Annibali, F., Cignoni, M., Tosi, M., et al. 2013, AJ, 146, 144, doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/146/6/144

    doi:10.1088/0004-6256/146/6/144 2013

  3. [3]

    K., et al

    Annibali, F., Pinna, E., Hunt, L. K., et al. 2023, ApJL, 942, L23, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/acab63

    doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acab63 2023

  4. [4]

    M., & Grevesse, N

    Asplund, M., Amarsi, A. M., & Grevesse, N. 2021, A&A, 653, A141, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202140445 Astropy Collaboration, Robitaille, T. P., Tollerud, E. J., et al. 2013, A&A, 558, A33, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201322068 Astropy Collaboration, Price-Whelan, A. M., Sip˝ ocz, B. M., et al. 2018, AJ, 156, 123, doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/aabc4f Astropy Collaboration...

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140445 2021

  5. [5]

    A., Hirschauer, A

    Aver, E., Berg, D. A., Hirschauer, A. S., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 510, 373, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stab3226

    doi:10.1093/mnras/stab3226 2022

  6. [6]

    K., & Klein, U

    Bajaja, E., Huchtmeier, W. K., & Klein, U. 1994, A&A, 285, 385

    1994

  7. [7]

    G., & de Blok, W

    Barnes, D. G., & de Blok, W. J. G. 2004, MNRAS, 351, 333, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07790.x

    arXiv 2004

  8. [8]

    L., Seibert, M., Hatt, D., et al

    Beaton, R. L., Seibert, M., Hatt, D., et al. 2019, ApJ, 885, 141, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab4263

    doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab4263 2019

Show all 151 references
  1. [9]

    F., McIntosh, D

    Bell, E. F., McIntosh, D. H., Katz, N., & Weinberg, M. D. 2003, ApJS, 149, 289, doi: 10.1086/378847

    2003 doi

  2. [10]

    A., Chisholm, J., Erb, D

    Berg, D. A., Chisholm, J., Erb, D. K., et al. 2021, ApJ, 922, 170, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac141b

    2021 doi

  3. [11]

    A., Erb, D

    Berg, D. A., Erb, D. K., Henry, R. B. C., Skillman, E. D., & McQuinn, K. B. W. 2019, ApJ, 874, 93, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab020a

    2019 doi

  4. [12]

    A., Pogge, R

    Berg, D. A., Pogge, R. W., Skillman, E. D., et al. 2020, ApJ, 893, 96, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab7eab

    2020 doi

  5. [13]

    A., Skillman, E

    Berg, D. A., Skillman, E. D., Marble, A. R., et al. 2012, ApJ, 754, 98, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/754/2/98 26 Breneman

    2012 doi

  6. [14]

    A., James, B

    Berg, D. A., James, B. L., King, T., et al. 2022, ApJS, 261, 31, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ac6c03

    2022 doi

  7. [15]

    2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2410.16366, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2410.16366

    Brauer, K., Emerick, A., Mead, J., et al. 2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2410.16366, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2410.16366

    2024 doi arXiv

  8. [16]

    2012, MNRAS, 427, 127, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21948.x

    Bressan, A., Marigo, P., Girardi, L., et al. 2012, MNRAS, 427, 127, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21948.x

    2012

  9. [17]

    2009, ApJ, 694, 396, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/694/1/396

    Wadsley, J. 2009, ApJ, 694, 396, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/694/1/396

    2009 doi

  10. [18]

    R., Kewley, L

    Brown, W. R., Kewley, L. J., & Geller, M. J. 2008, AJ, 135, 92, doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/135/1/92

    2008 doi

  11. [19]

    W., McQuinn, K

    Brunker, S. W., McQuinn, K. B. W., Salzer, J. J., et al. 2019, AJ, 157, 76, doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/aafb39

    2019 doi

  12. [20]

    2003, MNRAS, 344, 1000, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06897.x

    Bruzual, G., & Charlot, S. 2003, MNRAS, 344, 1000, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06897.x

    2003

  13. [21]

    A., Clayton, G

    Cardelli, J. A., Clayton, G. C., & Mathis, J. S. 1989, ApJ, 345, 245, doi: 10.1086/167900

    1989 doi

  14. [22]

    2022, A&A, 657, A9, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202040141

    Castignani, G., Combes, F., Jablonka, P., et al. 2022, A&A, 657, A9, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202040141

    2022 doi

  15. [23]

    2023, A&A, 671, A118, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202244738

    Cattorini, F., Gavazzi, G., Boselli, A., & Fossati, M. 2023, A&A, 671, A118, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202244738

    2023 doi

  16. [24]

    2015, ApJS, 219, 8, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/219/1/8

    Chang, Y.-Y., van der Wel, A., da Cunha, E., & Rix, H.-W. 2015, ApJS, 219, 8, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/219/1/8

    2015 doi

  17. [26]

    2018, MNRAS, 481, 1690, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty2380

    Chisholm, J., Tremonti, C., & Leitherer, C. 2018, MNRAS, 481, 1690, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty2380

    2018 doi

  18. [27]

    S., Hill, G

    Chonis, T. S., Hill, G. J., Lee, H., Tuttle, S. E., & Vattiat, B. L. 2014, in Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, Vol. 9147, Ground-based and Airborne Instrumentation for Astronomy V, ed. S. K. Ramsay, I. S. McLean, & H. Takami, 91470A,...

    2014 doi

  19. [28]

    S., Hill, G

    Chonis, T. S., Hill, G. J., Lee, H., et al. 2016, in Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, Vol. 9908, Ground-based and Airborne Instrumentation for Astronomy VI, ed. C. J. Evans, L. Simard, & H. Takami, 99084C, doi: 10.1117/12.2232209 Cid...

    2016 doi

  20. [30]

    M., Pearce, F., Foster, C., et al

    Colberg, J. M., Pearce, F., Foster, C., et al. 2008, MNRAS, 387, 933, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13307.x

    2008

  21. [31]

    A., Skillman, E

    Cole, A. A., Skillman, E. D., Tolstoy, E., et al. 2007, ApJL, 659, L17, doi: 10.1086/516711

    2007 doi

  22. [32]

    Collins, M. L. M., & Read, J. I. 2022, Nature Astronomy, 6, 647, doi: 10.1038/s41550-022-01657-4

    2022 doi

  23. [33]

    O., Dale, D

    Cook, D. O., Dale, D. A., Johnson, B. D., et al. 2014, MNRAS, 445, 899, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stu1787

    2014 doi

  24. [34]

    2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2502.18171, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2502.18171

    Correnti, M., Annibali, F., Bellazzini, M., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2502.18171, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2502.18171

    2025 doi arXiv

  25. [35]

    M., Tully, R

    Courtois, H. M., Tully, R. B., Fisher, J. R., et al. 2009, AJ, 138, 1938, doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/138/6/1938

    2009 doi

  26. [36]

    Dalcanton, J. J. 2007, ApJ, 658, 941, doi: 10.1086/508913

    2007 doi

  27. [37]

    A., Cohen, S

    Dale, D. A., Cohen, S. A., Johnson, L. C., et al. 2009, ApJ, 703, 517, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/703/1/517 D´ alya, G., Galg´ oczi, G., Dobos, L., et al. 2018, MNRAS, 479, 2374, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty1703

    2009 doi

  28. [38]

    Dinerstein, H. L. 1990, in Astrophysics and Space Science

    1990

  29. [39]

    161, The Interstellar Medium in Galaxies, ed

    Library, Vol. 161, The Interstellar Medium in Galaxies, ed. J. Thronson, Harley A. & J. M. Shull, 257–285, doi: 10.1007/978-94-009-0595-5 10

    doi

  30. [40]

    2016, DOLPHOT: Stellar photometry, Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1608.013

    Dolphin, A. 2016, DOLPHOT: Stellar photometry, Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1608.013

    2016

  31. [41]

    Dolphin, A. E. 2000, PASP, 112, 1383, doi: 10.1086/316630 Dom ´ ınguez-G´ omez, J., Lisenfeld, U., P´ erez, I., et al. 2022, A&A, 658, A124, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202141888

    2000 doi

  32. [42]

    A., Vogeley, M

    Douglass, K. A., Vogeley, M. S., & Cen, R. 2018a, ApJ, 864, 144, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aad86e —. 2018b, ApJ, 864, 144, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aad86e

    doi

  33. [43]

    A., Crone Odekon, M., et al

    Durbala, A., Finn, R. A., Crone Odekon, M., et al. 2020, AJ, 160, 271, doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/abc018

    2020 doi

  34. [44]

    N., & Pustilnik, S

    Ekta, Chengalur, J. N., & Pustilnik, S. A. 2006, MNRAS, 372, 853, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10904.x —. 2008, MNRAS, 391, 881, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13928.x

    2006

  35. [45]

    Ekta, B., & Chengalur, J. N. 2010, MNRAS, 406, 1238, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16756.x

    2010

  36. [46]

    C., Huchra, J., et al

    Ferrarese, L., Ford, H. C., Huchra, J., et al. 2000, ApJS, 128, 431, doi: 10.1086/313391

    2000 doi

  37. [47]

    E., S´ anchez Almeida, J., Mu˜ noz-Tu˜ n´ on, C., et al

    Filho, M. E., S´ anchez Almeida, J., Mu˜ noz-Tu˜ n´ on, C., et al. 2015, ApJ, 802, 82, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/802/2/82

    2015 doi

  38. [48]

    E., Winkel, B., S´ anchez Almeida, J., et al

    Filho, M. E., Winkel, B., S´ anchez Almeida, J., et al. 2013, A&A, 558, A18, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201322098

    2013 doi

  39. [49]

    C., Bartko, F., Bely, P

    Ford, H. C., Bartko, F., Bely, P. Y., et al. 1998, in Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, Vol. 3356, Space Telescopes and Instruments V, ed. P. Y. Bely & J. B. Breckinridge, 234–248, doi: 10.1117/12.324464

    1998 doi

  40. [50]

    Freedman, W. L. 2021, ApJ, 919, 16, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac0e95

    2021 doi

  41. [51]

    L., Madore, B

    Freedman, W. L., Madore, B. F., Hatt, D., et al. 2019, ApJ, 882, 34, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab2f73

    2019 doi

  42. [52]

    Garnett, D. R. 1990, ApJ, 363, 142, doi: 10.1086/169324 —. 1992, AJ, 103, 1330, doi: 10.1086/116146 —. 2002, ApJ, 581, 1019, doi: 10.1086/344301 XMP 27

    1990 doi

  43. [53]

    R., Masjedi, M., & West, A

    Geha, M., Blanton, M. R., Masjedi, M., & West, A. A. 2006, ApJ, 653, 240, doi: 10.1086/508604

    2006 doi

  44. [55]

    V., & Masters, K

    Goddy, J., Stark, D. V., & Masters, K. L. 2020, Research Notes of the American Astronomical Society, 4, 3, doi: 10.3847/2515-5172/ab66bd

    2020 doi

  45. [56]

    G., Izotov, Y

    Guseva, N. G., Izotov, Y. I., Fricke, K. J., & Henkel, C. 2015, A&A, 579, A11, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201525697 —. 2017, A&A, 599, A65, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201629181

    2015 doi

  46. [57]

    G., Izotov, Y

    Guseva, N. G., Izotov, Y. I., Stasi´ nska, G., et al. 2011, A&A, 529, A149, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201016291

    2011 doi

  47. [58]

    L., Freedman, W

    Hatt, D., Beaton, R. L., Freedman, W. L., et al. 2017, ApJ, 845, 146, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa7f73

    2017 doi

  48. [59]

    P., Giovanelli, R., Kent, B

    Haynes, M. P., Giovanelli, R., Kent, B. R., et al. 2018, ApJ, 861, 49, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aac956

    2018 doi

  49. [60]

    Henry, R. B. C., Edmunds, M. G., & K¨ oppen, J. 2000, ApJ, 541, 660, doi: 10.1086/309471

    2000 doi

  50. [61]

    J., Lee, H., MacQueen, P

    Hill, G. J., Lee, H., MacQueen, P. J., et al. 2021, AJ, 162, 298, doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/ac2c02

    2021 doi

  51. [62]

    G., & Mould, J

    Hoessel, J. G., & Mould, J. R. 1982, ApJ, 254, 38, doi: 10.1086/159702

    1982 doi

  52. [63]

    E., Roberts, M

    Hogg, D. E., Roberts, M. S., Haynes, M. P., & Maddalena, R. J. 2007, AJ, 134, 1046, doi: 10.1086/520766

    2007 doi

  53. [64]

    J., Prochaska, J

    Hsyu, T., Cooke, R. J., Prochaska, J. X., & Bolte, M. 2017, ApJL, 845, L22, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/aa821f —. 2018, ApJ, 863, 134, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aad18a

    2017 doi

  54. [65]

    K., & Richter, O

    Huchtmeier, W. K., & Richter, O. G. 1986, A&AS, 63, 323

    1986

  55. [66]

    A., Elmegreen, B

    Hunter, D. A., Elmegreen, B. G., & Madden, S. C. 2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2402.17004. https://arxiv.org/abs/2402.17004

    2024 arXiv

  56. [67]

    I., Guseva, N

    Izotov, Y. I., Guseva, N. G., Fricke, K. J., & Henkel, C. 2019, A&A, 623, A40, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201834768

    2019 doi

  57. [68]

    I., Schaerer, D., Worseck, G., et al

    Izotov, Y. I., Schaerer, D., Worseck, G., et al. 2018a, MNRAS, 474, 4514, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx3115

    doi

  58. [69]

    Thuan, T. X. 2006, A&A, 448, 955, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20053763

    2006 doi

  59. [70]

    I., & Thuan, T

    Izotov, Y. I., & Thuan, T. X. 1998, ApJ, 497, 227, doi: 10.1086/305440 —. 1999, ApJ, 511, 639, doi: 10.1086/306708

    1998 doi

  60. [71]

    I., Thuan, T

    Izotov, Y. I., Thuan, T. X., & Guseva, N. G. 2012, A&A, 546, A122, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201219733 —. 2021, MNRAS, 504, 3996, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stab1099

    2012 doi

  61. [72]

    I., Thuan, T

    Izotov, Y. I., Thuan, T. X., Guseva, N. G., & Liss, S. E. 2018b, MNRAS, 473, 1956, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx2478

    1956 doi

  62. [73]

    S., & Lee, M

    Jang, I. S., & Lee, M. G. 2017, ApJ, 835, 28, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/835/1/28

    2017 doi

  63. [74]

    D., Karachentseva, V

    Karachentsev, I. D., Karachentseva, V. E., Huchtmeier, W. K., & Makarov, D. I. 2004, AJ, 127, 2031, doi: 10.1086/382905 Kereˇ s, D., Katz, N., Weinberg, D. H., & Dav´ e, R. 2005, MNRAS, 363, 2, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09451.x

    2004

  64. [75]

    2016, in IOS Press, 87–90, doi: 10.3233/978-1-61499-649-1-87

    Kluyver, T., Ragan-Kelley, B., P´ erez, F., et al. 2016, in IOS Press, 87–90, doi: 10.3233/978-1-61499-649-1-87

    2016 doi

  65. [76]

    Y., Egorova, E

    Kniazev, A. Y., Egorova, E. S., & Pustilnik, S. A. 2018, MNRAS, 479, 3842, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty1704

    2018 doi

  66. [77]

    2023, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2308.15583, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2308.15583

    Kobayashi, C., & Ferrara, A. 2023, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2308.15583, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2308.15583

    2023 doi arXiv

  67. [78]

    2020, ApJ, 898, 142, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aba047 —

    Kojima, T., Ouchi, M., Rauch, M., et al. 2020, ApJ, 898, 142, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aba047 —. 2021, ApJ, 913, 22, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/abec3d

    2020 doi

  68. [79]

    Kreckel, K., Croxall, K., Groves, B., van de Weygaert, R., & Pogge, R. W. 2015, ApJL, 798, L15, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/798/1/L15

    2015 doi

  69. [80]

    A., et al

    Kreckel, K., Platen, E., Arag´ on-Calvo, M. A., et al. 2011, AJ, 141, 4, doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/141/1/4

    2011 doi

  70. [81]

    D., Cannon, J

    Lee, H., Skillman, E. D., Cannon, J. M., et al. 2006a, ApJ, 647, 970, doi: 10.1086/505573

    doi

  71. [82]

    D., & Venn, K

    Lee, H., Skillman, E. D., & Venn, K. A. 2006b, ApJ, 642, 813, doi: 10.1086/500568

    doi

  72. [83]

    G., Freedman, W

    Lee, M. G., Freedman, W. L., & Madore, B. F. 1993a, ApJ, 417, 553, doi: 10.1086/173334 —. 1993b, ApJ, 417, 553, doi: 10.1086/173334

    doi

  73. [84]

    2014, MNRAS, 445, 1694, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stu1804

    Lelli, F., Verheijen, M., & Fraternali, F. 2014, MNRAS, 445, 1694, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stu1804

    2014 doi

  74. [85]

    2012a, A&A, 537, A72, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201117867 —

    Lelli, F., Verheijen, M., Fraternali, F., & Sancisi, R. 2012a, A&A, 537, A72, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201117867 —. 2012b, A&A, 544, A145, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201219457

    doi

  75. [86]

    Luridiana, V., Morisset, C., & Shaw, R. A. 2012, in IAU

    2012

  76. [87]

    283, Planetary Nebulae: An Eye to the Future, 422–423, doi: 10.1017/S1743921312011738

    Symposium, Vol. 283, Planetary Nebulae: An Eye to the Future, 422–423, doi: 10.1017/S1743921312011738

    doi

  77. [88]

    Luridiana, V., Morisset, C., & Shaw, R. A. 2015, A&A, 573, A42, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201323152

    2015 doi

  78. [89]

    A., Nagao, T., et al

    Ly, C., Malkan, M. A., Nagao, T., et al. 2014, ApJ, 780, 122, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/780/2/122

    2014 doi

  79. [90]

    F., & Freedman, W

    Madore, B. F., & Freedman, W. L. 1995, AJ, 109, 1645, doi: 10.1086/117391

    1995 doi

  80. [91]

    2006, AJ, 132, 2729, doi: 10.1086/508925

    Makarov, D., Makarova, L., Rizzi, L., et al. 2006, AJ, 132, 2729, doi: 10.1086/508925

    2006 doi

  81. [92]

    P., & Kelley, T

    Mitchell, N. P., & Kelley, T. 2018, MNRAS, 477, 3164, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty839

    2018 doi

  82. [93]

    McQuinn, K. B. W., van Zee, L., & Skillman, E. D. 2019, ApJ, 886, 74, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab4c37

    2019 doi

  83. [94]

    McQuinn, K. B. W., Skillman, E. D., Cannon, J. M., et al. 2010, ApJ, 724, 49, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/724/1/49 28 Breneman

    2010 doi

  84. [95]

    McQuinn, K. B. W., Cannon, J. M., Dolphin, A. E., et al. 2014, ApJ, 785, 3, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/785/1/3

    2014 doi

  85. [96]

    McQuinn, K. B. W., Skillman, E. D., Dolphin, A., et al. 2015a, ApJ, 812, 158, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/812/2/158 —. 2015b, ApJL, 815, L17, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/815/2/L17

    doi

  86. [97]

    McQuinn, K. B. W., Berg, D. A., Skillman, E. D., et al. 2020, ApJ, 891, 181, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab7447

    2020 doi

  87. [98]

    2002, A&A, 390, 561, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20020755

    Meynet, G., & Maeder, A. 2002, A&A, 390, 561, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20020755

    2002 doi

  88. [99]

    Hirschauer, A. S. 2023, ApJ, 943, 93, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aca89b

    2023 doi

  89. [100]

    B., S´ anchez Almeida, J., Aguerri, J

    Morales-Luis, A. B., S´ anchez Almeida, J., Aguerri, J. A. L., & Mu˜ noz-Tu˜ n´ on, C. 2011, ApJ, 743, 77, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/743/1/77

    2011 doi

  90. [101]

    2023, ApJ, 952, 11, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/accf14

    Nishigaki, M., Ouchi, M., Nakajima, K., et al. 2023, ApJ, 952, 11, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/accf14

    2023 doi

  91. [102]

    A., Brammer, G., van Dokkum, P

    Oesch, P. A., Brammer, G., van Dokkum, P. G., et al. 2016, ApJ, 819, 129, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/819/2/129

    2016 doi

  92. [103]

    G., Izotov, Y

    Papaderos, P., Guseva, N. G., Izotov, Y. I., & Fricke, K. J. 2008, A&A, 491, 113, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:200810028

    2008 doi

  93. [104]

    S., & Shankar, F

    Peeples, M. S., & Shankar, F. 2011, MNRAS, 417, 2962, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19456.x

    2011

  94. [105]

    1967, ApJ, 150, 825, doi: 10.1086/149385

    Peimbert, M. 1967, ApJ, 150, 825, doi: 10.1086/149385

    1967 doi

  95. [106]

    E., Madore, B

    Persson, S. E., Madore, B. F., Krzemi´ nski, W., et al. 2004, AJ, 128, 2239, doi: 10.1086/424934

    2004 doi

  96. [107]

    2012, ApJ, 749, 133, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/749/2/133

    Petropoulou, V., V ´ ılchez, J., & Iglesias-P´ aramo, J. 2012, ApJ, 749, 133, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/749/2/133

    2012 doi

  97. [108]

    S., Grebel, E

    Pilyugin, L. S., Grebel, E. K., Zinchenko, I. A., Nefedyev, Y. A., & Mattsson, L. 2017, MNRAS, 465, 1358, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw2831

    2017 doi

  98. [109]

    A., Egorova, E

    Pustilnik, S. A., Egorova, E. S., Kniazev, A. Y., et al. 2021, MNRAS, 507, 944, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stab2084

    2021 doi

  99. [110]

    Kniazev, A. Y. 2020, MNRAS, 492, 1078, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz3417

    2020 doi

  100. [111]

    A., & Egorova, E

    Perepelitsyna, Y. A., & Egorova, E. S. 2024, MNRAS, 527, 11066, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stad3926

    2024 doi

  101. [112]

    A., Martin, J

    Pustilnik, S. A., Martin, J. M., Lyamina, Y. A., & Kniazev, A. Y. 2013, MNRAS, 432, 2224, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stt609

    2013 doi

  102. [113]

    A., Perepelitsyna, Y., Tepliakova, A., et al

    Pustilnik, S. A., Perepelitsyna, Y., Tepliakova, A., et al. 2022, in The Multifaceted Universe: Theory and Observations - 2000, 26, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2212.05640

    2022 doi

  103. [114]

    A., Perepelitsyna, Y

    Pustilnik, S. A., Perepelitsyna, Y. A., & Kniazev, A. Y. 2016, MNRAS, 463, 670, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw2039

    2016 doi

  104. [115]

    A., Tepliakova, A

    Pustilnik, S. A., Tepliakova, A. L., & Makarov, D. I. 2019, MNRAS, 482, 4329, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty2947

    2019 doi

  105. [116]

    W., Adams, M

    Ramsey, L. W., Adams, M. T., Barnes, T. G., et al. 1998, in Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, Vol. 3352, Advanced Technology Optical/IR Telescopes VI, ed. L. M. Stepp, 34–42, doi: 10.1117/12.319287

    1998 doi

  106. [117]

    1987, ApJ, 323, 433, doi: 10.1086/165841

    Reid, N., Mould, J., & Thompson, I. 1987, ApJ, 323, 433, doi: 10.1086/165841

    1987 doi

  107. [118]

    B., Makarov, D., et al

    Rizzi, L., Tully, R. B., Makarov, D., et al. 2007, ApJ, 661, 815, doi: 10.1086/516566

    2007 doi

  108. [119]

    2012, APLpy: Astronomical Plotting Library in Python, Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1208.017

    Robitaille, T., & Bressert, E. 2012, APLpy: Astronomical Plotting Library in Python, Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1208.017

    2012

  109. [120]

    Rots, A. H. 1980, A&AS, 41, 189

    1980

  110. [121]

    2018, ApJS, 235, 23, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/aaa8e5

    Sabbi, E., Calzetti, D., Ubeda, L., et al. 2018, ApJS, 235, 23, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/aaa8e5

    2018 doi

  111. [122]

    F., & Freedman, W

    Sakai, S., Madore, B. F., & Freedman, W. L. 1996, ApJ, 461, 713, doi: 10.1086/177096

    1996 doi

  112. [123]

    J., Jangren, A., Gronwall, C., et al

    Salzer, J. J., Jangren, A., Gronwall, C., et al. 2005, AJ, 130, 2584, doi: 10.1086/497365 S´ anchez Almeida, J., P´ erez-Montero, E., Morales-Luis, A. B., et al. 2016, ApJ, 819, 110, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/819/2/110

    2005 doi

  113. [124]

    F., & Finkbeiner, D

    Schlafly, E. F., & Finkbeiner, D. P. 2011, ApJ, 737, 103, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/737/2/103

    2011 doi

  114. [125]

    J., Finkbeiner, D

    Schlegel, D. J., Finkbeiner, D. P., & Davis, M. 1998, ApJ, 500, 525, doi: 10.1086/305772

    1998 doi

  115. [126]

    2016, MNRAS, 457, 1842, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw114

    Schneider, R., Hunt, L., & Valiante, R. 2016, MNRAS, 457, 1842, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw114

    2016 doi

  116. [127]

    J., Garcia, M., et al

    Schootemeijer, A., Lennon, D. J., Garcia, M., et al. 2022, A&A, 667, A100, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202244730

    2022 doi

  117. [128]

    P., et al

    Senchyna, P., Plat, A., Stark, D. P., et al. 2024, ApJ, 966, 92, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad235e

    2024 doi

  118. [129]

    Senchyna, P., & Stark, D. P. 2019, MNRAS, 484, 1270, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz058

    2019 doi

  119. [130]

    D., & Kennicutt, Robert C., J

    Skillman, E. D., & Kennicutt, Robert C., J. 1993, ApJ, 411, 655, doi: 10.1086/172868

    1993 doi

  120. [131]

    D., Kennicutt, R

    Skillman, E. D., Kennicutt, R. C., & Hodge, P. W. 1989, ApJ, 347, 875, doi: 10.1086/168178

    1989 doi

  121. [132]

    D., Salzer, J

    Skillman, E. D., Salzer, J. J., Berg, D. A., et al. 2013, AJ, 146, 3, doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/146/1/3

    2013 doi

  122. [133]

    V., Davies, R

    Smoker, J. V., Davies, R. D., Axon, D. J., & Hummel, E. 2000, A&A, 361, 19

    2000

  123. [134]

    2015, MNRAS, 452, 235, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stv1235 —

    Sorba, R., & Sawicki, M. 2015, MNRAS, 452, 235, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stv1235 —. 2018, MNRAS, 476, 1532, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty186

    2015 doi

  124. [135]

    M., Haynes, M

    Springob, C. M., Haynes, M. P., Giovanelli, R., & Kent, B. R. 2005, ApJS, 160, 149, doi: 10.1086/431550

    2005 doi

  125. [136]

    2025, ApJ, 981, 136, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/adb5f3 XMP 29

    Stiavelli, M., Morishita, T., Chiaberge, M., et al. 2025, ApJ, 981, 136, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/adb5f3 XMP 29

    2025 doi

  126. [137]

    K., & Heckman, T

    Strickland, D. K., & Heckman, T. M. 2009, ApJ, 697, 2030, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/697/2/2030 STSCI Development Team. 2012, DrizzlePac: HST image software, Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1212.011. http://ascl.net/1212.011

    2009 doi

  127. [138]

    G., Chisholm, J., McQuinn, K

    Telford, O. G., Chisholm, J., McQuinn, K. B. W., & Berg, D. A. 2021, ApJ, 922, 191, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac1ce2

    2021 doi

  128. [139]

    G., Sandstrom, K

    Telford, O. G., Sandstrom, K. M., McQuinn, K. B. W., et al. 2025, Nature, 642, 900, doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09115-7

    2025 doi

  129. [140]

    X., Goehring, K

    Thuan, T. X., Goehring, K. M., Hibbard, J. E., Izotov, Y. I., & Hunt, L. K. 2016, MNRAS, 463, 4268, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw2259

    2016 doi

  130. [141]

    X., Guseva, N

    Thuan, T. X., Guseva, N. G., & Izotov, Y. I. 2022, MNRAS, 516, L81, doi: 10.1093/mnrasl/slac095

    2022 doi

  131. [142]

    L., Blakeslee, J

    Tonry, J. L., Blakeslee, J. P., Ajhar, E. A., & Dressler, A. 2000, ApJ, 530, 625, doi: 10.1086/308409

    2000 doi

  132. [143]

    A., Heckman, T

    Tremonti, C. A., Heckman, T. M., Kauffmann, G., et al. 2004, ApJ, 613, 898, doi: 10.1086/423264

    2004 doi

  133. [144]

    Trujillo, I., Chamba, N., & Knapen, J. H. 2020, MNRAS, 493, 87, doi: 10.1093/mnras/staa236

    2020 doi

  134. [145]

    B., Rizzi, L., Shaya, E

    Tully, R. B., Rizzi, L., Shaya, E. J., et al. 2009, AJ, 138, 323, doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/138/2/323

    2009 doi

  135. [146]

    B., Courtois, H

    Tully, R. B., Courtois, H. M., Dolphin, A. E., et al. 2013, AJ, 146, 86, doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/146/4/86

    2013 doi

  136. [147]

    B., Kourkchi, E., Courtois, H

    Tully, R. B., Kourkchi, E., Courtois, H. M., et al. 2023, ApJ, 944, 94, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac94d8 van de Rydt, F., Demers, S., & Kunkel, W. E. 1991, AJ, 102, 130, doi: 10.1086/115861 van Driel, W., Butcher, Z., Schneider, S., et al. 2016, A&A, 595, A118, doi: 10.1051/0004-...

    2023 doi

  137. [148]

    A., et al

    Vangioni, E., Dvorkin, I., Olive, K. A., et al. 2018, MNRAS, 477, 56, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty559

    2018 doi

  138. [149]

    2016, MNRAS, 458, 3466, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw532

    Ventura, P. 2016, MNRAS, 458, 3466, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw532

    2016 doi

  139. [150]

    2018a, A&A, 610, L16, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201732395 —

    Vincenzo, F., & Kobayashi, C. 2018a, A&A, 610, L16, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201732395 —. 2018b, MNRAS, 478, 155, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty1047

    doi

  140. [151]

    E., et al

    Virtanen, P., Gommers, R., Oliphant, T. E., et al. 2020, Nature Methods, 17, 261, doi: 10.1038/s41592-019-0686-2

    2020 doi

  141. [152]

    F., Lang, D., Dalcanton, J

    Williams, B. F., Lang, D., Dalcanton, J. J., et al. 2014, ApJS, 215, 9, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/215/1/9

    2014 doi

  142. [153]

    E., & Wang, J

    Yang, H., Malhotra, S., Rhoads, J. E., & Wang, J. 2017, ApJ, 847, 38, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa8809

    2017 doi

  143. [154]

    C., Wang, J., & Li, H

    Yu, N., Ho, L. C., Wang, J., & Li, H. 2022, ApJS, 261, 21, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ac626b

    2022 doi

Pith tools

Reviewed August 5, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.