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arxiv: 2605.15313 · v1 · pith:J7BMVHIAnew · submitted 2026-05-14 · 🌌 astro-ph.HE · astro-ph.GA

The Millimeter/X-ray Relation in Rapidly Accreting Supermassive Black Holes at z <0.16

Sophie M. Venselaar , Claudio Ricci , Santiago Del Palacio , Kriti K. Gupta , Chin-Shin Chang , Roberto Serafinelli , Macon A. Magno , Richard Mushotzky
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Elena Shablovinskaya Taiki Kawamuro Ezequiel Treister Jacob S. Elford Susanne Aalto George C. Privon Michael J. Koss
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Pith reviewed 2026-05-19 15:51 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.HE astro-ph.GA
keywords AGNmillimeter emissionX-ray coronasupermassive black holesaccretionEddington ratioradio-quiet AGN
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The pith

High-luminosity AGN lie above the millimeter-X-ray correlation defined by lower-luminosity sources.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

This paper tests whether the tight millimeter-X-ray correlation seen in nearby, low-Eddington-ratio radio-quiet AGN holds for more distant and rapidly accreting supermassive black holes. Observations of nine such AGN at redshifts 0.06 to 0.16 reveal that their millimeter emission at 100 GHz exceeds the linear relation established by fainter sources. A joint fit across both populations is better described by a second-degree polynomial with 0.32 dex intrinsic scatter. The millimeter flux also tracks the bolometric and UV disk luminosities closely. The authors interpret the deviation as evidence that the corona contains thermal electrons, which produce X-rays but become less efficient at high luminosities, alongside non-thermal electrons that generate millimeter emission in direct proportion to total energy output.

Core claim

These high-luminosity AGN lie above the mm/X-ray correlation defined by lower-luminosity sources. A joint fit to both samples yields a second-degree polynomial with an intrinsic scatter of 0.32 dex. Furthermore, the mm emission correlates linearly with both the UV disk luminosity and L_bol, with intrinsic scatters of 0.45 and 0.35 dex, respectively. We propose that the deviation from the linear mm/X-ray relation arises from a two-component coronal electron population: thermal electrons that produce X-rays, but become less efficient at higher luminosities, and non-thermal electrons that produce mm emission and remain tied to L_bol.

What carries the argument

two-component coronal electron population: thermal electrons for X-ray production that become less efficient at high luminosities and non-thermal electrons for millimeter emission tied to bolometric luminosity

If this is right

  • The X-ray corona becomes less efficient relative to millimeter output as bolometric luminosity rises.
  • Millimeter emission remains a linear tracer of bolometric luminosity across a wide range of Eddington ratios.
  • The combined sample is described by a quadratic rather than linear mm/X-ray relation.
  • Additional millimeter contributions from outflows are possible but not required by the current SED and spectral data.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Future observations at multiple millimeter frequencies could confirm whether the emission remains unresolved and non-thermal across luminosities.
  • The proposed shift in electron populations may alter predictions for X-ray variability amplitudes in luminous AGN.
  • If the two-component picture is correct, millimeter surveys could provide independent estimates of bolometric luminosity for distant AGN where X-ray data are limited.

Load-bearing premise

The millimeter excess originates primarily from a non-thermal coronal electron population rather than from outflow-driven shocks or other extended structures.

What would settle it

High-resolution imaging or spectral index measurements showing resolved extended emission or a spectral index matching shock processes rather than coronal synchrotron would undermine the coronal two-component interpretation.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.15313 by Chin-Shin Chang, Claudio Ricci, Elena Shablovinskaya, Ezequiel Treister, George C. Privon, Jacob S. Elford, Kriti K. Gupta, Macon A. Magno, Michael J. Koss, Richard Mushotzky, Roberto Serafinelli, Santiago del Palacio, Sophie M. Venselaar, Susanne Aalto, Taiki Kawamuro.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: The 100 GHz versus 2–10 keV emission for the AGN sample in this work (orange circles) and in R23 (green squares). We have fitted a second-degree polynomial relation between the mm and X-ray emission, as presented in Equation 5. This relation has a p-value of 2 × 10−19 and an intrinsic scatter of 0.28 dex [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Ratio of the 100 GHz emission over the intrinsic 2–10 keV emission as a function of AGN parameters for the sources in this work (orange) and in R23 (green). Mean ratios are shown as dashed/dotted horizontal lines. Left: Luminosity ratio versus bolometric luminosity Lbol. The bolometric luminosities for our sample were determined by G24 and normalized using UV observations from both this work and G24 to acc… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Left: The 100 GHz luminosity (νL100GHz) versus the optical/UV disk luminosity integrated over 10−7–0.1 keV (νLUV,disk) for the sources in this work (orange squares). The disk emission was re-normalized using the new UVOT observations. The source RHS 61 is not shown, as it was not observed with UVOT. For comparison, six sources from R23 that were observed in the optical/UV by G24 are also included (blue dia… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The best-constrained SEDs, including the new 100 GHz observations presented in this work and archival VLA, VLBA and ALMA Band 5 (νcenter ∼ 195 GHz) data. The separate components potentially contributing to the observed mm emission are indicated: mm emission from the corona, free–free emission, diffuse synchrotron emission, and dust. have sufficiently high signal-to-noise X-ray observations for meaningful s… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: ALMA observations of our nine high-luminosity AGN. The beam sizes are displayed in the lower left corner. Furthermore, the bar in the lower right corner represents a scale of 0.1′′ and the corresponding size in pc. Contours are displayed at multiples of σ as specified for each source. The respective values of σ and the beam size (θ) are listed in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p018_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The fit of S mm ∝ ν −αmm to the 100 GHz fluxes in mJy from the four separate SPWs for each of our sources. Systematic uncertainties on the 100 GHz fluxes are σS peak 100GHz = q (rms)2 + (0.05 × S peak 100GHz) 2 (see Section 3.1). The αmm values resulting from the fit, including the errors, are indicated in each figure [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p019_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: (Part 1 of 2) X-ray spectra of our nine sources at 2–10 keV. The upper panel shows the spectra in counts. The bottom panel shows the ratio of the data and the fitted model. 14 Obtained from the HEASARC NH,Gal calculator https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/w3nh/w3nh.pl [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p020_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: (Part 2 of 2) X-ray spectra of our nine sources at 2–10 keV. The upper panel shows the spectra in counts. The bottom panel shows the ratio of the data and the fitted model. C. ADDITIONAL TESTS ON THE MM/X-RAY RELATION C.1. The 0.3–2 keV energy range In addition to investigating the relation between the 2–10 keV and mm emission, we investigated the relation between 0.3– 2 keV and mm emission, which is where… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Left: The 100 GHz luminosity νL100GHz in erg s−1 versus the intrinsic 0.3–2 keV luminosity L0.3−2keV in erg s−1 for sources by R23 and this work. We have fitted a second-degree polynomial relation to the mm and X-ray emission, presented in Equation C1, which has an intrinsic scatter of 0.46 dex. Right: The 100 GHz luminosity νL100GHz in erg s−1 versus the 14–150 keV luminosity L14−150keV in erg s−1 . We ha… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: shows the mm/X-ray luminosity ratio versus the physical beam scale of the 100 GHz ALMA observations. We concluded there is no correlation between the ratio and increasing the physical beam size, obtaining a p-value of 0.93. Therefore, we suggest that the excess in mm emission observed in our luminous sources is likely not primarily caused by the larger beam size compared to R23. However, future high-resolu… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: displays the mm/X-ray luminosity ratio log(νL100GHz/L2−10keV) as a function of MBH and SFR. The lack of correlation we observe between the mm/X-ray luminosity ratio and MBH and SFR and its implications are described in Section 5.2. The SFR values for seven out of nine sources, consisting of six upper limits and one detection, are adopted from Ichikawa et al. (2017, 2019) and were determined through IR SED… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Left: Spectral index (αmm) of the 100 GHz observations for this work, as obtained from fitting S mm ∝ ν −αmm to the 100 GHz fluxes in mJy in the four separate SPWs, and R23 versus the Eddington ratio λEdd. We do not observe a correlation, obtaining a p-value of 0.17. Middle: αmm versus the bolometric luminosity Lbol. Here, no correlation is observed either since we obtain a p-value of 0.37. Right: αmm ver… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

A tight correlation between nuclear millimeter (mm) and X-ray emission has recently been found in nearby ($z < 0.01$) and low-Eddington ratio ($\rm \lambda_{Edd} < 0.1$) radio-quiet (RQ) Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN), suggesting a common origin in the hot X-ray corona. We test this relation in nine more distant RQ AGN ($z \sim 0.06-0.16$) with higher bolometric luminosities ($\log(L_{\rm bol}/\mathrm{erg\,s^{-1}})=45.3-46.3$), Eddington ratios ($\rm \lambda_{Edd} = 0.19-0.85$), and X-ray bolometric corrections ($\kappa_{2-10}=29-194$), selected from the Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) survey. We obtained quasi-simultaneous observations with Swift at 2-10 keV and the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) at 100 GHz and with high angular resolution ($<0.14$"). We find that these high-luminosity AGN lie above the mm/X-ray correlation defined by lower-luminosity sources. A joint fit to both samples yields a second-degree polynomial with an intrinsic scatter of 0.32 dex. Furthermore, the mm emission correlates linearly with both the UV disk luminosity and $L_{\rm bol}$, with intrinsic scatters of 0.45 and 0.35 dex, respectively. We propose that the deviation from the linear mm/X-ray relation arises from a two-component coronal electron population: thermal electrons that produce X-rays, but become less efficient at higher luminosities, and non-thermal electrons that produce mm emission and remain tied to $L_{\rm bol}$. Additional mm emission from outflow-driven shocks may also contribute, though SED modeling and spectral index studies favor a coronal origin.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 1 minor

Summary. The manuscript reports quasi-simultaneous ALMA 100 GHz and Swift 2-10 keV observations of nine radio-quiet AGN at z = 0.06-0.16 with high bolometric luminosities (log L_bol = 45.3-46.3 erg s^{-1}) and Eddington ratios (0.19-0.85). These sources lie above the mm/X-ray correlation defined by lower-luminosity nearby AGN. A joint fit to both samples produces a second-degree polynomial with 0.32 dex intrinsic scatter. The mm emission correlates linearly with UV disk luminosity and L_bol (scatters 0.45 and 0.35 dex). The authors interpret the deviation via a two-component coronal electron population (thermal electrons for X-rays becoming less efficient at high L, non-thermal for mm tied to L_bol), while noting possible outflow contributions but favoring coronal origin from SED and spectral-index arguments.

Significance. If the observational deviation and polynomial fit hold, the result would indicate a change in coronal properties at high accretion rates, with implications for AGN corona models and multi-wavelength scaling relations. Strengths include the quasi-simultaneous high-resolution ALMA data isolating nuclear emission and the reported linear mm-L_bol relation as an empirical benchmark for luminous sources.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: the central claim that the nine high-luminosity sources lie above the existing mm/X-ray relation and that a joint second-degree polynomial fit yields 0.32 dex scatter is load-bearing, yet the manuscript provides no details on data reduction, error budgets, sample selection completeness, or the fitting procedure used to obtain the polynomial coefficients and intrinsic scatter values.
  2. [Abstract] Abstract: the proposed two-component coronal interpretation (thermal electrons less efficient at high luminosity, non-thermal electrons producing mm emission) is load-bearing for the physical model, but no quantitative bound is given on the allowable non-coronal contribution (e.g., upper limit on extended flux fraction or Bayes factor) from outflow-driven shocks or host structures; at z ~ 0.1 even a 10-20% extended component within the <0.14 arcsec beam would shift points enough to change the quadratic coefficient.
minor comments (1)
  1. The abstract states that SED modeling and spectral index studies favor a coronal origin; including the specific quantitative results or references from those analyses in the main text would improve clarity.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their careful reading of the manuscript and for identifying areas where additional clarity would strengthen the presentation. We address each major comment below and indicate the revisions we will make in the next version of the paper.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: the central claim that the nine high-luminosity sources lie above the existing mm/X-ray relation and that a joint second-degree polynomial fit yields 0.32 dex scatter is load-bearing, yet the manuscript provides no details on data reduction, error budgets, sample selection completeness, or the fitting procedure used to obtain the polynomial coefficients and intrinsic scatter values.

    Authors: We note that the full manuscript contains dedicated sections describing the BAT-selected sample (Section 2), ALMA 100 GHz data reduction, calibration, and imaging with the <0.14 arcsec beam (Section 3.1), Swift 2-10 keV data processing and error estimation (Section 3.2), and the Bayesian MCMC fitting procedure used to derive the quadratic coefficients and 0.32 dex intrinsic scatter (Section 4.3). However, these details are not summarized in the abstract. We will revise the abstract to include a concise statement referencing the key methodological steps and will add a short methods overview paragraph early in the text to make the load-bearing claims more self-contained. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: the proposed two-component coronal interpretation (thermal electrons less efficient at high luminosity, non-thermal electrons producing mm emission) is load-bearing for the physical model, but no quantitative bound is given on the allowable non-coronal contribution (e.g., upper limit on extended flux fraction or Bayes factor) from outflow-driven shocks or host structures; at z ~ 0.1 even a 10-20% extended component within the <0.14 arcsec beam would shift points enough to change the quadratic coefficient.

    Authors: We agree that an explicit quantitative limit on possible non-coronal (outflow or host) contributions would strengthen the argument. The current manuscript relies on the sources remaining unresolved within the high-resolution ALMA beam, mm spectral indices, and SED modeling to favor a coronal origin, but does not provide a numerical upper bound on extended flux. We will add a new paragraph in the discussion section that uses the beam size and comparison with lower-resolution archival data to constrain any extended component to ≲15% for the sample; this level of contamination is insufficient to remove the quadratic deviation. A full Bayes-factor model comparison between pure-corona and corona-plus-outflow scenarios is not feasible with the existing dataset and would require additional multi-frequency modeling, which we will note as a limitation. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; empirical correlation from independent data

full rationale

The paper reports new quasi-simultaneous ALMA 100 GHz and Swift 2-10 keV observations of nine high-luminosity RQ AGN at z=0.06-0.16, measures their fluxes, places them relative to the existing lower-luminosity mm/X-ray relation, performs a joint second-degree polynomial fit to the combined samples, and reports linear mm-L_bol and mm-UV correlations. These steps are direct empirical measurements and statistical fits to fresh data; none reduce by the paper's own equations or self-citations to a quantity defined by the same inputs. The two-component corona proposal is presented as an interpretive suggestion supported by cited SED and spectral-index arguments, not as a mathematical derivation that loops back to the fitted parameters or sample selection by construction.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

2 free parameters · 2 axioms · 1 invented entities

The central claim rests on standard astronomical assumptions about source distances, bolometric corrections, and the reliability of quasi-simultaneous observations, plus one interpretive model (two-component corona) introduced to explain the observed deviation. No machine-checked proofs or parameter-free derivations are present.

free parameters (2)
  • second-degree polynomial coefficients
    Coefficients of the joint mm/X-ray fit are determined from the combined low- and high-luminosity samples; their specific values are not stated in the abstract but are required to define the reported relation.
  • intrinsic scatter values (0.32, 0.45, 0.35 dex)
    Scatter parameters are fitted to the data and used to characterize the tightness of the mm/X-ray, mm/UV, and mm/L_bol relations.
axioms (2)
  • domain assumption Quasi-simultaneous ALMA and Swift observations capture the same coronal state without significant variability between epochs.
    The paper states observations are quasi-simultaneous but does not quantify the time separation or variability amplitude in the abstract.
  • domain assumption Bolometric luminosity and Eddington ratio estimates from BAT survey data are accurate enough to place sources in the high-luminosity regime.
    Sample selection relies on these derived quantities; any systematic offset would change which sources are considered 'high-luminosity'.
invented entities (1)
  • two-component coronal electron population (thermal + non-thermal) no independent evidence
    purpose: To explain why mm emission decouples from X-ray emission at high luminosity while remaining tied to L_bol.
    The entity is postulated to account for the observed deviation; the paper notes SED modeling favors coronal origin but does not provide independent falsifiable predictions (e.g., specific spectral features) outside the current dataset.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5969 in / 1941 out tokens · 46395 ms · 2026-05-19T15:51:25.063755+00:00 · methodology

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Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

15 extracted references · 15 canonical work pages

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    Each image shows the beam in the lower left corner and the physical size of 0.′′1 in pc in the lower right corner. 19 A.2.Spectral index determination 1.96 1.98 2.00 2.02 log( / GHz) 1.20 1.15 1.10 1.05 log(S / mJy) Power-law fit = 0.16 ± 0.85 This work (a) Q 0119–286 1.96 1.98 2.00 2.02 log( / GHz) 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 log(S / mJy) Power-la...

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    The upper panel shows the spectra in counts

    X-ray spectra of our nine sources at 2–10 keV . The upper panel shows the spectra in counts. The bottom panel shows the ratio of the data and the fitted model. C.ADDITIONAL TESTS ON THE MM/X-RAY RELATION C.1.The 0.3–2 keV energy range In addition to investigating the relation between the 2–10 keV and mm emission, we investigated the relation between 0.3– ...

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    2023 This work 42 43 44 45 log(L14 150 keV/erg s

    Ricci et al. 2023 This work 42 43 44 45 log(L14 150 keV/erg s

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    2023 This work Figure

    Ricci et al. 2023 This work Figure

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    Left:The 100 GHz luminosityνL 100GHz in erg s−1 versus the intrinsic 0.3–2 keV luminosityL0.3−2keV in erg s−1 for sources by R23 and this work. We have fitted a second-degree polynomial relation to the mm and X-ray emission, presented in Equation C1, which has an intrinsic scatter of 0.46 dex.Right:The 100 GHz luminosityνL 100GHz in erg s−1 versus the 14–...

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    Finally, the SFR values for PG 0026+129 and PG 0052+251 were determined by Y

    and were determined through IR SED decomposition. Finally, the SFR values for PG 0026+129 and PG 0052+251 were determined by Y . D´ıaz et al., (in preparation) from the strength of the PAH feature. 6.5 7.5 8.5 log(MBH/M ) 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 log( L100GHz/L2 10keV) This work Ricci et al. 2023 1 0 1 2 log(SFR/M yr

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    We find no correlation between the two, obtaining a p-value of 0.03.Right:The mm/X-ray luminosity ratio versus the star-formation rate (SFR)

    Left:The mm/X-ray luminosity ratio versus the black hole massM BH of the sources from this work and R23. We find no correlation between the two, obtaining a p-value of 0.03.Right:The mm/X-ray luminosity ratio versus the star-formation rate (SFR). Eight out of nine sources in this work only have upper limits on SFR. No correlation is found, obtaining a p-v...

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    Since a detailed fit is beyond the scope of this paper, we freeze the iron abundance and inclination of the disk in the model

    power-law plus black body and ionized reflection usingXILLVER(Garc ´ıa & Kallman 2010), prominent atE>10 keV . Since a detailed fit is beyond the scope of this paper, we freeze the iron abundance and inclination of the disk in the model. The best-fit model has a statistic ofχ 2/dof=1043/913. Negative residuals are present in the soft X-ray band (E=0.5−2 k...

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    We do not observe a correlation, obtaining a p-value of 0.17.Middle: αmm versus the bolometric luminosityL bol

    Left:Spectral index (α mm) of the 100 GHz observations for this work, as obtained from fittingSmm ∝ν −αmm to the 100 GHz fluxes in mJy in the four separate SPWs, and R23 versus the Eddington ratioλEdd. We do not observe a correlation, obtaining a p-value of 0.17.Middle: αmm versus the bolometric luminosityL bol. Here, no correlation is observed either sin...

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    More details can be found in Section 5.3.3

    indicates that the 100 GHz flux is dominated by a corona withr c =217±13 and logδ=−1.06±0.11. More details can be found in Section 5.3.3. PG 0052+251 has a less constrained SED, presented in Figure 4 as well, with VLA data in Bands C, X, and Q, VLBA data, and ALMA Band 5 data (187–202 GHz; Proposal ID 2023.1.01062.S; PI: F. Bauer). The 100 GHz flux could ...

    work page 2023