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Near-infrared characterization of evolved massive stars in M31 and M33

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Pith's one-line read Near-infrared K-band spectroscopy of six evolved massive stars in M31 and M33 detects CO band emission that reclassifies ambiguous optical objects as B[e] supergiants, places one in a post-red-supergiant stage, and points to a…

desk verdict Honest, useful NIR classifications of six evolved massive stars; the two headline claims (post-RSG status, binary) are both weaker than the abstract implies, but the authors flag the gaps themselves. read the letter →

arxiv 2507.19249 v1 pith:K5FXQ3Q2 submitted 2025-07-25 astro-ph.SR astro-ph.GA

Michaela Kraus , Maria Laura Arias , Michalis Kourniotis , Andrea Torres , Lydia S. Cidale , Marcelo Borges Fernandes This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.SRastro-ph.GA
keywords massivestarsB[e]supergiantsluminousbluevariablesrednear-infraredspectroscopyCObandemissioncarbonisotoperatioM31andM33
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper claims that near-infrared K-band spectra can break classification deadlocks among evolved massive stars that optical spectra alone cannot resolve. Observing six stars in M31 and M33, the authors detect CO band emission around two M31 objects and reclassify them as B[e] supergiants—hot evolved stars with dense circumstellar disks—with one most likely caught in the post-red-supergiant phase. They also argue that a third M31 star is a B[e] supergiant, that a featureless M31 object is likely an LBV in an S Dor cycle, and that an M33 star is a possible binary pairing a hot LBV/B[e] supergiant with a red supergiant, a combination never before confirmed. If right, the work would show that molecular and hydrogen-recombination diagnostics in the near-infrared are decisive where optical classification is ambiguous, and it would add a rare evolutionary stepping-stone to the map of massive-star lives.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing diagnostic is the CO first-overtone band spectrum in the K band: emission from the $^{12}$CO and $^{13}$CO band heads, modeled with a Keplerian-rotating-disk code under LTE, yields the gas temperature, column density, projected rotation velocity, and the $^{12}$CO/$^{13}$CO abundance ratio. That ratio is the evolutionary clock—it tracks the surface $^{12}$C/$^{13}$C ratio, which drops from the interstellar value near 90 toward values below 5 only after the red-supergiant phase. Pfund-series hydrogen emission supplies the complementary probe of ionized-wind density in hotter objects, and CO absorption identifies cool late-type components, as in the candidate binary.

What would settle it

A higher-quality K-band spectrum of J004320.97+414039.6 with $^{12}$CO/$^{13}$CO above 5 would falsify the post-red-supergiant classification; alternatively, a completed radial-velocity curve for J013242.26+302114.1 that follows 500–1000 day red-supergiant pulsations rather than a roughly 530-day orbit would falsify the binary claim.

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Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central discovery is that the near-infrared K-band region, through CO first-overtone band emission and hydrogen Pfund-series emission, exposes the nature of evolved massive stars that optical spectra leave ambiguous. CO band emission indicates dense, warm (roughly 1500–2200 K) circumstellar rings, and the modeled $^{12}$CO/$^{13}$CO ratio reads the star's surface carbon-isotope enrichment at the time the gas was ejected. For J004320.97+414039.6 the ratio is about 3, which on rotating 20 solar-mass evolutionary tracks is reached only after the red-supergiant phase, placing the star in a post-red-supergiant stage. For J013242.26+302114.1 in M33, pure CO absorption reveals a red supergiant whose radial velocity wanders by at least 9 km/s; together with a spectral energy distribution that requires both a hot 22,000–24,000 K star and a cool 4,000 K component, this supports a binary of a hot LBV or B[e] supergiant with a red supergiant secondary, which, if confirmed, would be the first such system known.

Load-bearing premise

The post-red-supergiant classification of J004320.97+414039.6 stands on the modeled $^{12}$CO/$^{13}$CO ratio of about 3 being the true surface carbon-isotope ratio of the ejected gas, measured from a low-signal spectrum.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • J004320.97+414039.6 joins the small set of post-red-supergiant B[e] supergiants, marking the evolutionary transition from the red-supergiant phase back to a hot phase.
  • CO band emission should be treated as a decisive discriminator between B[e] supergiants and LBV candidates in extragalactic surveys, breaking the optical degeneracy between these classes.
  • The candidate binary J013242.26+302114.1, if confirmed with a complete orbit, would be the first known red-supergiant binary with an evolved massive primary, providing a testbed for binary evolution and mass transfer.
  • For J004229.87+410551.8, the featureless K-band spectrum plus brightening and reddening since 2002 supports an ongoing S Dor cycle, meaning its classification as an LBV should be tested with fresh optical spectroscopy.
  • The persistent CO emission and Na I doublet in J004621.08+421308.2 confirm that its molecular disk has remained stable over roughly eight years.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • A direct prediction is that higher-signal-to-noise K-band spectroscopy of J004320.97+414039.6 will keep $^{12}$CO/$^{13}$CO below about 5; if the measured ratio instead rises above that, the post-red-supergiant reading would be an artifact of noise or telluric residuals.
  • The same $^{12}$CO/$^{13}$CO method could be applied to other extragalactic B[e] supergiant candidates with ambiguous optical classifications, turning the technique into a population-level census of post-red-supergiant stars.
  • If the binary is real, its roughly 9 km/s semi-amplitude implies a long period, and a completed radial-velocity curve should show a period above about 530 days—the Roche-lobe limit derived in the paper—allowing the pulsation alternative to be excluded.
  • The paper's assumption that the CO ring is in Keplerian rotation is not directly tested; a non-Keplerian outflow geometry would change derived column densities and isotope ratios, so time-resolved or interferometric measurements of the ring kinematics would strengthen the classification.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper presents new GNIRS K-band spectra (R~5900, 2.2-2.4 microns) for six evolved massive stars in M31 and M33, five of which had previously ambiguous optical classifications. For each target the authors model the detected CO band emission (two M31 objects) or hydrogen Pfund emission (two objects) and combine the results with literature photometry, SED modeling, and radial velocities. They classify J004320.97+414039.6 and J004621.08+421308.2 as B[e] supergiants, argue that J004320 is most likely in a post-red supergiant stage based on 13C enrichment (12CO/13CO ~ 3), propose J004415.00+420156.2 as a B[e] supergiant, confirm Var 83 as an LBV, find J004229.87+410551.8 featureless and possibly an LBV in an S Dor cycle, and argue that J013242.26+302114.1 is most likely a binary system comprising a hot B-type emission-line object and a red supergiant, potentially the first of its kind.

Significance. If the classifications hold, the paper demonstrates that K-band CO and Pfund diagnostics can resolve optical ambiguities in extragalactic evolved massive stars and identifies a rare post-RSG B[e]SG candidate and a possibly first LBV/B[e]SG+RSG binary. The observations are new and useful: four objects receive their first near-infrared spectra, the model fits are quantitative and reported with parameters, and the analysis makes good use of archival APOGEE radial velocities and long-term photometry. The paper also contains explicit caveats about the weakest data. However, the two headline claims--the post-RSG status of J004320 and the binary nature of J013242--rest on fragile evidence, so the significance of the work is conditional on additional data or a more cautious presentation.

major comments (3)
  1. [§4.2.2, Table 4, Fig. 7] The binary interpretation of J013242.26+302114.1 is not yet supported by the radial-velocity data. The claimed semi-amplitude of at least ~9 km/s is set by the single 2012 measurement (-121.6 km/s, no quoted uncertainty) against the APOGEE/GNIRS cluster near -100 to -110.8 km/s; the APOGEE values alone span only about 7.5 km/s. The authors themselves note that RSG radial pulsations reach ~10 km/s with periods of 500-1000 d for M_K ~ -11, and their own minimum orbital period estimate of 532 d lies inside that range. With no phase-resolved orbit and no radial-velocity measurement of the hot component, the data do not favor orbital motion over intrinsic pulsation. The abstract and conclusions should state "candidate binary" rather than "most likely a binary" unless additional epochs or a coherent radial-velocity curve are provided.
  2. [§3.1, Table 2, Fig. 2] The post-RSG classification of J004320.97+414039.6 rests entirely on the fitted 12CO/13CO ratio of 3 +/- 1 in a spectrum with S/N = 16 and telluric remnants in the red portion. The modeling assumes LTE and a particular (Keplerian or equatorial-outflow) geometry, and the mapping to the stellar surface 12C/13C at the time of ejection depends on single-star rotating evolutionary tracks. No systematic-error analysis is given for the telluric correction, continuum placement, or optical depth, so it is not demonstrated that the ratio is robustly below the RSG threshold of 5. Since this is the load-bearing evidence for the "post-red supergiant" statement in the abstract, the paper should either add a quantitative robustness test (e.g., varying the continuum, line-formation geometry, or optical depth) or downgrade the claim to provisional pending higher-S/N data.
  3. [§4.1.1] The argument that a featureless K-band spectrum "tentatively excludes" a B[e]SG classification is weakened by the paper's own statement that only about 50% of B[e]SGs show CO band emission, and by the possibility that Pfund emission is weak or absent in some B[e]SGs. The conclusion that J004229.87+410551.8 is not a B[e]SG therefore relies more on the literature-based concern about IR excess contamination than on the new spectrum alone, and the wording should reflect this asymmetry.
minor comments (5)
  1. [Fig. 2 caption] The caption contains a corrupted text fragment ("20 MO •") and the color-bar label "12C/13C" should be explicitly defined as the carbon isotope abundance ratio.
  2. [Table 4] The Drout et al. (2012) radial-velocity measurement is listed without an uncertainty; please add an estimated uncertainty or state explicitly why none is available.
  3. [§4.2.2] The statement that the single-star ages of the two components "have at least the same order of magnitude" is presented as supporting binarity, but a 3-4 Myr age difference is substantial; this argument should be removed or explicitly framed as non-constraining.
  4. [§2] Please clarify how the rest-wavelength shift was determined for objects with no intrinsic spectral features, given that for J004229.87+410551.8 no shift is applied.
  5. [Table 1] The abbreviation "cLBV" is used without definition at first occurrence; please expand it in the table caption or in Section 1.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity; classifications rest on new K-band observations compared with external literature diagnostics.

full rationale

The paper's central results are inferred from newly obtained GNIRS K-band spectra, not from parameters that were defined in terms of the conclusions. The CO band emission and Pfund-line detections are direct observational features; their interpretation uses external, previously established diagnostics (e.g., CO emission as a B[e]SG indicator, evolutionary tracks, literature photometry) rather than a self-referential definition. The fitted 12CO/13CO ratios are model outputs that are then compared with independent stellar evolution tracks, so the post-RSG classification is an inference, not a tautology. The binary hypothesis for J013242.26+302114.1 is explicitly presented as tentative, with the authors noting that the radial-velocity variations 'might also have a different origin' and that follow-up is needed; the SED modelling is used as supporting evidence after the K-band spectrum already indicated a cool component, not as a circular substitute. Self-citations to the authors' earlier CO/Pfund codes and classification criteria are methodological reuse of tools validated on other samples, and they do not smuggle in the present conclusions. No load-bearing derivation reduces to its own inputs.

Assumptions & free parameters 9 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 0 invented entities

All free parameters are model fits to the observed spectra and SED, not constants introduced to force a result. The main axioms are standard line-formation and stellar-atmosphere assumptions, plus the evolutionary-track calibration of the carbon isotope ratio and the orbital interpretation of the RSG radial velocities. No new physical entities are postulated; the proposed binary is a hypothesis about known star types, so invented_entities is empty.

free parameters (9)
  • CO gas temperature = J004320: 2200 K; J004621: 1500 K (both +/-100 K)
    Fitted to CO band-head spectra in Section 3.1; controls molecular band strengths.
  • CO column density = J004320: (3+/-1)e21 cm^-2; J004621: (5+/-1)e22 cm^-2
    Fitted column density through the modeled CO ring in Section 3.1.
  • Carbon isotope ratio 12CO/13CO = J004320: 3+/-1; J004621: 50+/-10
    Fitted from relative CO band-head strengths; this ratio is the basis for the post-RSG interpretation of J004320.
  • CO line-of-sight rotation velocity = 60+/-10 km/s for both CO-emitting objects
    Fitted projected rotation velocity in the CO disk model, Table 2.
  • CO Gaussian velocity broadening = 2+/-0.5 km/s for both CO-emitting objects
    Fitted thermal plus turbulent broadening term in the CO model, Table 2.
  • Hydrogen density in Pfund line region = J004415: 1.9e13 cm^-3; Var 83: 4.9e13 cm^-3
    Derived from the maximum detected Pfund line using Menzel case B recombination, Table 3.
  • Maximum Pfund quantum number = J004415: n=47; Var 83: n=40
    Fitted highest Pfund transition observed; used as the hydrogen density diagnostic, Table 3.
  • Hot component SED parameters = T_eff = 22000-24000 K, A_V = 0.65-0.7 mag
    Fit to the UV and blue optical SED of J013242 in Section 4.2.2.
  • Cool component SED parameters = T_eff = 4000 K, log g = 1.0
    Kurucz grid minimum adopted for the RSG in the SED fit; the authors state these are upper limits and the model is for demonstration.
assumptions (6)
  • domain assumption CO band emission forms under LTE in a dense, warm molecular ring around the star.
    Invoked in Section 3.1 to justify the CO modeling code; considered reasonable for high column densities but not directly verified for these targets.
  • domain assumption The observed double-peaked CO band heads trace rotational motion, and the projected rotation velocity model captures the line formation geometry.
    Used in Section 3.1 to convert band-head profiles into ring parameters; the authors note an equatorial outflow could produce similar profiles.
  • domain assumption Pfund lines form in an optically thin ionized wind under Menzel case B recombination at T_e = 10,000 K.
    Used in Section 3.2 to convert detected Pfund series to hydrogen densities; the authors note the temperature choice mainly affects normalization.
  • domain assumption Single-star rotating evolutionary tracks at solar metallicity connect the surface 12C/13C ratio to evolutionary phase.
    Used in Section 3.1 and Figure 2 to argue that a ratio below 5 implies passage through the RSG phase; binary effects and M31 metallicity are not modeled.
  • domain assumption The SED of J013242 is a sum of a Kurucz hot-star model and a 4000 K cool-star model with Cardelli extinction and R_V = 3.2.
    Underlies the binary luminosity and radius estimates in Section 4.2.2; field contamination and line-of-sight projection are not excluded.
  • ad hoc to paper The RSG radial velocity changes of about 9 km/s are orbital motion rather than intrinsic pulsation or convection.
    Required for the binary hypothesis; the authors themselves list RSG pulsations with similar amplitude and period as an alternative in Section 4.2.2.

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Pith. "Pith review of Near-infrared characterization of evolved massive stars in M31 and M33." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/K5FXQ3Q2

@misc{pith2026250719249,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Near-infrared characterization of evolved massive stars in M31 and M33},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/K5FXQ3Q2}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2507.19249}
}
read the original abstract

The upper region of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is populated by massive stars in a diversity of evolutionary stages, and the classification of these stars is often based on observed characteristics exclusively in the optical spectral range. The near-infrared regime provides useful complementary information that can help resolving ambiguities in stellar classification and add valuable information about circumstellar envelopes or late-type companions. We present new, near-infrared medium-resolution K-band spectra for a sample of six evolved massive stars, four in M31 and two in M33. The spectra are obtained with the Gemini Near-Infrared Spectrograph (GNIRS) at the Gemini North telescope. We detect CO band emission from the environment of two M31 objects, J004320.97+414039.6 and J004621.08+421308.2, which we classify as B[e] supergiants, with J004320.97+414039.6 being most likely in a post-red supergiant stage. Two objects have pure emission from the hydrogen Pfund series. Of these, we propose that J004415.00+420156.2 in M31 could also be a B[e] supergiant while J013410.93+303437.6 (Var 83) is a well-known luminous blue variable (LBV) in M33. The M31 star J004229.87+410551.8 has a featureless spectrum and its evolutionary stage remains inconclusive; it could be an LBV undergoing an S Dor cycle. The object J013242.26+302114.1 in M33 displays a pure absorption spectrum, including CO bands, consistent with its identification as a cool star. Radial velocity measurements of this red component, combined with modelling of the spectral energy distribution, suggest that J013242.26+302114.1 may be a binary system consisting of an LBV or B[e] supergiant primary and a red supergiant secondary. If confirmed, it would represent the first of its kind.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2507.19249 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Best-fitting models (red) to the circumstellar emission and absorption seen in the normalized GNIRS spectra (black) of our objects. The parameters for the CO band and Pfund line emission are listed in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The parameters for the atmospheric model are listed in the corresponding panel. The order of the objects follows the one in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p003_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. for evolutionary tracks of a star at solar metallicity (which is similar to the metallicity of M31) with an initial mass of 20 M⊙ and for rotation rates Ω/Ωcrit = 0.1 − 0.5 in steps of 0.1 (Ekström et al. 2012). The tracks are interpolations obtained by the tool SYCLIST4 (Yusof et al. 2022). With increasing rotation velocity of the star, the enrichment in 13C on the stellar surface starts earlier in the evolution, b… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Time series observations of J004229.87+410551.8 collected in 𝑔 band with ZTF (gray points) and 𝐵𝑉𝑅𝐼 filters (coloured points). For clarity of the plot, the error bars of the ZTF measurements (which are of similar size as for the 𝐵𝑉𝑅𝐼 photometry) are omitted. The errorbars of the data from 2002 are smaller than the symbol size. The black arrows mark the dates of spectroscopic observations in the optical (Massey et al… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (3 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Time series observations of J013410.93+303437.6 (Var 83) col￾lected in 𝐵𝑉𝑅𝐼 filters. The black arrow marks the date of our K-band obser￾vations. over about 12 years (from July 2012 to February 2024). The light curves display irregular brightness variations of 0.7 − 0.8…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Location of the hot and cool components of J013242.26+302114.1 in the HR diagram along with evolutionary tracks for rotating stars with solar metallicity (from Ekström et al. 2012) [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_6.png]
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Radial velocity curve of the RSG component in J013242.26+302114.1. MNRAS 000, 1–11 (2025) [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_7.png]

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 15, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.