The Merger-Driven Formation of Classical Low Surface Brightness Galaxies in Romulus25

Alyson M. Brooks; Anna C. Wright; Ferah Munshi; Jason E. Young; Michael Tremmel; Tom Quinn

REVIEW 4 major objections 5 minor 1 cited by

The Merger-Driven Formation of Classical Low Surface Brightness Galaxies in Romulus25

T0 review · 4 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-06 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read Classical low surface brightness galaxies in the Romulus25 simulation are predominantly formed by major mergers that spin up the remnant, spreading star formation outward and keeping the galaxy gas-rich, metal-poor, and faint.

desk verdict Strong simulation-based case for merger-driven LSB formation, but the '>80% of stars' statistic is unsupported and the sample denominator needs tightening. read the letter →

arxiv 2507.21231 v2 pith:N222HML2 submitted 2025-07-28 astro-ph.GA

Anna C. Wright , Alyson M. Brooks , Michael Tremmel , Jason E. Young , Ferah Munshi , Tom Quinn This is my paper

classification astro-ph.GA

keywords lowsurfacebrightnessgalaxiesgalaxymergersspinangularmomentumcosmologicalsimulationsstarformationneutralhydrogenRomulus25

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper argues that classical low surface brightness (LSB) galaxies — the gas-rich, late-type galaxies with faint central surface brightness — are not mostly products of quiet, isolated evolution but of a specific kind of major merger. In the Romulus25 cosmological simulation, when the merging companion co-rotates with the primary's gas disk and/or arrives with high orbital angular momentum, the merger spins up the remnant; star formation becomes more spread out and inefficient, so the galaxy keeps a large HI reservoir and low metallicity, yielding a faint center. LSB galaxies made this way account for about 60% of central galaxies with stellar masses $10^8$–$10^{10} \, M_\odot$ in the simulation. The paper also shows that LSB bulges have the same masses as HSB bulges but are more diffuse and redder, and that LSB galaxies are part of a continuum of merger outcomes rather than a separate species.

What carries the argument

The argument is carried by merger orientation and spin. The orientation is quantified by $\cos \phi_{\rm orb} = \hat{J}_{\rm orb} \cdot \hat{J}_{\rm gas,primary}$ at infall: +1 means the secondary co-rotates in the primary's gas disk plane, -1 counter-rotates, and 0 is perpendicular. Orbital angular momentum of the secondary at infall is the second input. The output is the gas spin parameter $\lambda'_{\rm gas}$ (the Bullock spin parameter without explicit energy dependence), which rises after the last major merger for LSB galaxies and falls for HSB galaxies. Because more than 80% of the median galaxy's stars form during or after that merger, the spin change leaves a permanent imprint on the stellar distribution: the radius containing 80% of star formation ($r_{80}$) grows to 2–3 times its pre-merger value in LSB galaxies while HSB remnants compactify. The classification itself uses the exponential disk fit central surface brightness $\mu_0 \ge 22.5$ mag/arcsec$^2$.

What would settle it

Re-run Romulus25 with a star formation model that prevents star formation in low-density gas (for example, by raising the density threshold) and check whether co-rotating major mergers still produce LSB remnants; if the spin-up-to-LSB connection disappears or weakens sharply, the central claim is an artifact of the subgrid recipe.

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Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that classical LSB galaxies in Romulus25 are typically significantly spun up by their last major merger, and that this spin-up is what makes them low surface brightness. In mergers that produce LSB galaxies, the secondary is typically co-rotating and aligned with the primary's gas disk (cos $\phi_{\rm orb} > 0.25$) and/or has higher orbital angular momentum at infall, so more orbital angular momentum is converted into internal spin. As a result the post-merger galaxy has high spin, star formation is extended and inefficient, central surface brightness stays faint, and the galaxy accumulates unenriched gas. The paper further claims that LSB galaxies' blue observed colors arise from low dust reddening (low metallicity), not from young stellar populations; their stellar populations are actually slightly older and redder than those of HSB galaxies. The same analysis finds that LSB bulges are as massive as HSB bulges but lower surface brightness, redder, and more diffuse, and that LSB galaxies inhabit similar environments to HSB galaxies, with the last major merger being the main differentiating event.

Load-bearing premise

The paper assumes the subgrid star formation and feedback prescriptions of Romulus25 (star formation efficiency 0.15, blastwave coupling 0.75, and density threshold $n > 0.2$ cm$^{-3}$) accurately reproduce how gas is consumed and how star formation spreads after mergers, even though the resolution limit may artificially boost star formation in low-density gas.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

If classical LSB galaxies form this way, major mergers do not always destroy disks and quench star formation: aligned, gas-rich mergers can produce extended, star-forming, disk-dominated remnants.
The observed combination of HI-richness, low metallicity, low star formation efficiency, and blue color in LSB galaxies follows from the same post-merger state, so these traits should appear together.
LSB galaxies with bulges should generally have bulges as massive as those of HSB galaxies of the same stellar mass, but fainter, redder, and more diffuse; this is a direct prediction for resolved bulge studies.
Classical LSB galaxies are one end of a continuum of merger outcomes; selection by surface brightness alone does not isolate a separate formation channel.
In Romulus25, LSB galaxies make up roughly 60% of central galaxies in the $10^8$–$10^{10} \, M_\odot$ range, implying the merger-spin-up path is common rather than rare.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

If the same merger-spin-up mechanism operates in the real universe, faint stellar streams and disturbed HI morphologies around classical LSB galaxies should be detectable with deep imaging and HI mapping long after the last major merger.
Because the Romulus25 LSB fraction (about 60%) slightly exceeds the roughly 50% often quoted from observations, a higher-resolution simulation with less star formation in low-density gas might yield a lower LSB fraction; this is testable by varying the subgrid star formation threshold.
The orientation dependence is strongest for pure disk LSB galaxies and weakest for irregular dwarfs, suggesting the merger-spin-up channel becomes the dominant LSB formation route above dwarf masses, while feedback may remain more important in dwarfs.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

Quick take: this is the strongest simulation-based case I've seen that merger-driven spin-up builds classical LSB galaxies at masses up to 10^10–10^11 Msun. The paper deserves a serious referee. But there are two things to fix before acceptance: the unsupported '>80% of stars' claim in Section 3.3.2, and the ambiguous '60% of all central galaxies' framing.

What's new: previous work (Di Cintio 2019, Wright 2021) had the co-rotating merger idea, but mostly in dwarfs or zoom-ins. This paper shows it in a uniform cosmological volume, with a mass-matched HSB control, and extends it to bulge+disk systems. The merger-orientation distributions are statistically distinct (KS p < 1e-6 for pure disks) and the higher orbital angular momentum at infall is a genuinely new ingredient. The HI, metallicity, and color trends are all consistent with observations, and the authors are honest about the simulation being HI-poor and the resolution boosting SFRs in low-density gas.

Soft spots: the 'more than 80% of the median galaxy's stars are formed during or after this final major merger' sentence is a load-bearing claim for the 'permanent imprint' argument, but it appears nowhere in the figures or tables. The math in the stress-test note looks right: with a median lookback time of 9.5 Gyr and near-constant SFH, you'd expect roughly 60–70%, not >80%. That overstatement weakens the causal claim. It's not fatal—the post-merger evolutionary tracks in Figure 16 do show sustained spin-up and outward star formation—but the authors need to show that statistic. Also, the abstract says '60% of all central galaxies,' but the sample is selected to be late-type (HI mass and color cuts). If the denominator is really all central galaxies, that's misleading; if it's late-type centrals, say so. Finally, the simulation's known HI deficiency and SFR boosting at low density are acknowledged, but they should be discussed as possible biases in the LSB classification itself.

Bottom line: this is a serious, citable paper for anyone working on LSB galaxies or merger-driven disk formation. Send it to referees, but insist on the missing statistics and denominator clarity.

Referee Report

4 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper uses the Romulus25 cosmological simulation to identify a sample of 326 classical low surface brightness (LSB) galaxies among 511 late-type central galaxies, split into irregular, pure disk, and bulge+disk categories. These are compared with mass-matched late-type high surface brightness (HSB) galaxies. The authors report that LSB galaxies are HI-rich, metal-poor, spatially extended, and have near-constant star formation histories, with older and redder bulges. They argue that classical LSB galaxies are predominantly produced by major mergers in which the secondary is co-rotating and aligned with the primary's gas disk and/or has high orbital angular momentum, causing merger-driven spin-up that makes star formation more extended and inefficient. The paper also claims that classical LSB galaxies constitute about 60% of all central galaxies in the quoted stellar mass range.

Significance. If the central claim holds, the paper provides a coherent and testable formation channel for classical LSB galaxies that goes beyond the traditional high-spin halo scenario and connects to earlier merger-driven explanations for ultra-diffuse galaxies. The analysis is based on a large, uniformly selected simulated sample, uses a selection procedure that mimics observational surveys, and includes careful mass-matching and statistical comparisons with several observed samples. The authors are also commendably explicit about known simulation limitations, such as the overall HI deficit and resolution effects on star formation. However, because the causal interpretation rests on a small number of specific quantitative claims, those claims need to be supported or corrected before the paper can be accepted.

major comments (4)

[Abstract; Section 3.1; Section 4] The abstract and Section 3.1 state that classical LSB galaxies account for approximately 60% of all central galaxies with 8 <= log10(Mstar/Msun) <= 10, but the sample is explicitly restricted to late-type central galaxies (M_HI >= 10^6.5 Msun and B-V < 0.72). As written, the denominator in this fraction is ambiguous and likely inconsistent: the 511-galaxy parent sample contains only late-type centrals, so the 60% figure should refer to late-type central galaxies, not all central galaxies. Please revise the text, abstract, and Figure 2 caption to state the correct denominator, or recompute the fraction using all central galaxies if that is the intended claim.
[Section 3.3.2] The sentence "Because more than 80% of the median galaxy's stars are formed during or after this final major merger" is a load-bearing step in the argument that merger-driven spin-up leaves a permanent imprint on the galaxy's stellar distribution, but no figure, table, or calculation supporting this statistic is provided. Given that the same section reports a median last-major-merger lookback time of 9.52 Gyr for bulge+disk LSB galaxies and that Figure 6 shows near-constant star formation histories, the 80% value is not self-evident and may depend on the assumed assembly epoch. Please add a quantitative derivation or a figure showing the distribution of the fraction of stars formed after the last major merger for each subsample, and use that to justify the causal statement.
[Section 3.3.2; Figure 17] The merger orientation and orbital angular momentum analyses in Figure 17 are central to the claim that co-rotating, high-angular-momentum mergers produce LSB galaxies, but the paper does not state how galaxies without any major merger are treated. If such galaxies are excluded from the figure, the comparison between LSB and HSB galaxies could be biased; if they are included, it is unclear what value of phi_orb or orbital angular momentum they are assigned. Please report the number of galaxies contributing to each panel and explicitly describe the treatment of galaxies with no major merger.
[Section 3.2.2; Section 3.3.2] The authors note that the simulation resolution boosts star formation in low-density gas, which is precisely the regime that determines whether a galaxy is classified as LSB. This raises the question of whether the extended star formation and faint central surface brightness of LSB galaxies in Romulus25 are caused by merger-driven spin-up or are partly artifacts of the subgrid star formation prescription. Since the causal claim in Section 3.3.2 depends on this distinction, the paper should include a resolution or subgrid-parameter test, or at least an explicit quantitative argument that the merger-orientation signal is not driven by the resolution-dependent SF threshold.

minor comments (5)

[Section 3.1] The resolution cut Mvir < 3e9 Msun is described as corresponding to ~10,000 dark matter particles, but with MDM,part = 3.39e5 Msun the number is closer to 8,850; please correct this estimate.
[Section 3.3.2] The text says that a perfectly aligned co-rotating merger "has phi_orb = 1" and a counter-rotating merger "has phi_orb = -1", but Eq. (5) defines phi_orb as an angle; it is cos(phi_orb) that takes these values. Please fix the notation throughout the paragraph.
[Section 3.3.1] The phrase "(Alejandra in prep.)" is informal for a journal submission; please replace it with a proper citation or remove it.
[Figure 17] The caption does not state whether the distributions are normalized or how the KS test sample sizes were determined; adding the number of galaxies and the normalization convention would improve reproducibility.
[Section 3.2.3] The statement that the LSB versus HSB metallicity differences are significant uses p < 0.02 for all subsamples, but the pure disk difference of 0.19 dex would be more informative with confidence intervals on the median difference.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 2.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the merger-orientation and spin-up analysis is an independent interpretation of simulation data; self-citations are contextual only, with one non-circular internal-consistency caveat on the 80% statistic.

full rationale

The paper's central claim—that classical LSB galaxies in Romulus25 are preferentially produced by co-rotating, high-orbital-angular-momentum major mergers that spin up the remnant and spread star formation—is an inference from the simulation's resolved evolution, not a re-labeling of its inputs. The LSB classification (Sec. 3.1, mu0 >= 22.5 mag/arcsec^2) is measured from exponential fits to B-band surface brightness profiles, while the merger-orientation angle phi_orb (Eq. 5) and gas spin lambda'_gas are computed from orbital and internal angular momentum vectors at infall and across the merger. No parameter is fitted to the LSB/HSB split, and the comparison uses mass-matched controls. The self-citations (Wright et al. 2021; Van Nest et al. 2022) supply the major-merger definition, the UDG merger channel, and context, but the present sample and the Fig. 16/17 statistics are independently produced here. The subgrid calibration to the external mass–spin–morphology relation (Tremmel et al. 2017) is a legitimate independent benchmark; it does not fix the merger-orientation result, because nothing in the analysis is fit to the LSB sample's merger histories. One non-circular concern should be flagged: the load-bearing sentence 'Because more than 80% of the median galaxy’s stars are formed during or after this final major merger...' (Sec. 3.3.2) is not tied to a figure and appears inconsistent with the same section's median last-major-merger lookback time of 9.52 Gyr and the near-constant SFHs of Fig. 6; if the true fraction were far lower, the causal 'permanent imprint' argument would be weakened. This is an evidentiary/correctness issue, not circularity.

Assumptions & free parameters 4 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the inherited subgrid calibration of Romulus25 and on the halo/merger-tracking tools, but the paper introduces no new free parameters fitted to its own target result and postulates no new physical entities.

free parameters (4)

star formation efficiency c* = 0.15
Subgrid efficiency in the ChaNGa star formation recipe (Eq. 1), tuned in Tremmel et al. (2017) to reproduce galaxy scaling relations; the post-merger gas consumption and hence the LSB classification depend on it.
SNe blastwave energy coupling = 0.75
Fraction of supernova energy injected as thermal feedback (Section 2); affects gas retention and disk structure after mergers.
star formation density threshold = n > 0.2 cm^-3
Gas density above which star formation is allowed (Section 2); the paper notes resolution limits raise effective SFRs in low-density gas, which can bias the gas-richness of LSB galaxies.
SMBH seed mass = 1e6 M_sun
Seed mass for black holes (Section 2); not directly load-bearing for the central merger claim but part of the inherited calibration.

assumptions (4)

domain assumption Lambda-CDM cosmology with Planck 2014 parameters
Romulus25 initial conditions assume this cosmological model; the formation history of LSB galaxies is interpreted within it.
domain assumption AHF halo finder and tangos merger trees correctly identify halos and track merger histories
The identification of major mergers and infall times relies on these tools (Section 2).
domain assumption ChaNGa SPH with subgrid star formation and feedback produces physical galaxy evolution at 350 pc softening
All results are outputs of this model; the paper acknowledges resolution-driven SFR biases (Section 3.2.2).
domain assumption Stellar population synthesis models (Marigo et al. 2008; Girardi et al. 2010) give reliable B-V colors and surface brightnesses
Used to convert star particle properties into the photometric quantities that define LSB classification (Section 3.1).

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of The Merger-Driven Formation of Classical Low Surface Brightness Galaxies in Romulus25." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/N222HML2

@misc{pith2026250721231,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: The Merger-Driven Formation of Classical Low Surface Brightness Galaxies in Romulus25},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/N222HML2}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2507.21231}
}

abstract

We use the Romulus25 cosmological simulation volume to study a large sample of late-type gas-rich galaxies with low central surface brightnesses known as classical low surface brightness (LSB) galaxies and compare them to a mass-matched sample of high surface brightness (HSB) galaxies. We find that classical LSB galaxies make up a substantial fraction of the galaxy population, accounting for ~60% of all central galaxies with 8$\leq$log$_\mathrm{10}$(M$_\star$/M$_\odot$)$\leq$10. In Romulus25, classical LSB galaxies are predominantly formed through major mergers in which the secondary galaxy is co-rotating and aligned with the primary galaxy's gas disk and/or has above average orbital angular momentum at infall. The merger product is a high spin galaxy in which star formation is spread out and inefficient, allowing the galaxy to build up a large supply of relatively unenriched gas. The star formation rates of LSB galaxies are nearly constant over time, leading to stellar populations that are, on average, slightly older and therefore optically redder than those of similar HSB galaxies. However, because LSB galaxies are diffuse and metal-poor, they have very little internal reddening, causing them to appear bluer than HSB galaxies. We also find that, when compared to the bulges of HSB galaxies, the bulges of LSB galaxies are similar in mass, but are lower surface brightness, redder, and more diffuse on average. Despite these differences, classical LSB galaxies are part of the continuum of the galaxy population in Romulus25, constituting one of many evolutionary paths.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2507.21231 by the authors.

**Figure 1.** B-band surface brightness profiles with accompanying exponential disk (solid blue lines) and S´ersic bulge (dashed blue line) fits (bottom) and face-on mock UVI images of representative LSB galaxies (top). The top panels are twice the width of the bottom panels and go down to 30 mag/arcsec2 . Fit parameters (i.e., central surface brightness, scale length, and, when relevant, bulge effective radius) for each galaxy a… view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** The fraction of central Romulus25 galaxies that are classical LSB galaxies as a function of stellar mass. At higher masses, LSB galaxies are those with fainter central surface brightnesses. At lower masses, nearly all dwarfs have faint central surface brightnesses, and LSB classification is typically more indicative of morphology. Galaxies are grouped in bins of 0.5 dex and errors are Poisson errors. galaxies for w… view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_3.png] view at source ↗

Figures from the paper (14 more)

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: Left: The stellar and HI masses of LSB galaxies (shades of blue), late-type central HSB galaxies (red), and early-type central galaxies (unfilled) in Romulus25. Those galaxies with MHI ≤106.5 M⊙ are indicated with downward-facing arrows. The green band shows the median…

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: Left: Instantaneous star formation rates of our classical LSB galaxies (shades of blue) and late-type central HSB galaxies (red) compared to observational data from R. Kuzio de Naray & K. Spekkens (2011) (pale green pluses), S. S. McGaugh et al. (2017) (gray xs), and F…

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: Cumulative star formation histories for our simulated classical LSB galaxies (in blue) and mass-matched samples of late-type HSB galaxies (in red). The thick solid lines track the evolution of the median while the shading indicates the interquartile range at each time.…

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: Enclosed star formation rate (top) and HI mass (bottom) profiles, normalized to individual galaxy totals and scaled by virial radius, for our classical LSB galaxies (blue) and mass-matched samples of late-type HSB galaxies (red). The thick solid lines track the median …

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: Enclosed star formation rate profiles, normalized to individual galaxy totals and scaled by disk scale length (rd), for our classical LSB galaxies (blue) and mass-matched samples of late-type HSB galaxies (red). The thick solid lines track the median profile while the …

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: Distribution of metallicity, as measured by the oxygen abundance in cold gas, for classical LSB galaxies (shown in blue) and mass-matched samples of late-type HSB galaxies (shown in red). In each of our subsamples, the LSB galaxies tend to have lower metallicities than…

**Figure 10.** Figure 10: Top: Mass-metallicity relationship for LSB galaxies in Romulus25, compared to data from observations of LSB galaxies from R. Kuzio de Naray & K. Spekkens (2011), W. Du et al. (2017), Y. C. Liang et al. (2010), and T.-w. Cao et al. (2023). Points for individual galaxie…

**Figure 11.** Figure 11: Following their procedure, we identify pairs of galaxies with similar HI and stellar masses and calculate their relative difference in both central surface brightness (∆µ0; plotted on the x-axis) and gas-phase metallicity (∆Z; plotted on the y-axis), subtracting the …

**Figure 12.** Figure 12: Top: Distribution of B-V colors for classical LSB galaxies (shown in blue) and mass-matched samples of central late-type HSB galaxies (shown in red). Although our simulated LSB galaxies are relatively blue, the irregular and pure disk samples are, on average, redder t…

**Figure 13.** Figure 13: The distributions of B-V colors for classical LSB galaxies (shown in blue) and mass-matched samples of central late-type HSB galaxies (shown in red). Distributions shown with solid lines are corrected for internal reddening due to dust following I. Shivaei et al. (202…

**Figure 14.** Figure 14: The number of significant neighbors within a distance D of our classical LSB galaxies (shown in blue) and late-type HSB galaxies (shown in red), where a significant neighbor is any resolved galaxy with Mvir at least 10% that of the LSB or HSB galaxy we are searching a…

**Figure 15.** Figure 15: The evolution of the perturbation index of LSB galaxies (shown in blue) and late-type HSB galaxies (shown in red). The thick solid lines track the median evolution while the shading indicates the interquartile range at each time. In dark blue and dark red dotted lines…

**Figure 16.** Figure 16: HI-to-stellar-mass fraction, radius within which 80% of star formation is contained (scaled by its value at the time of the last major merger), B-band central surface brightness, and gas spin as a function of time relative to that of the last major merger for LSB gala…

**Figure 17.** Figure 17: Distributions of merger orientations (top) and orbital angular momenta (bottom) for our classical LSB galaxies and mass-matched samples of late-type HSB galaxies. ϕorb is the angle between the orbital angular momentum vector of the secondary galaxy and the specific an…

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Pith tools

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