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Environmental Evidence for Overly Massive Black Holes in Low Mass Galaxies and a Black Hole - Halo Mass Relation at $z \sim 5$

T0 review · 3 major / 7 minor · reviewed 2026-08-11 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read Six faint AGN at z≈5 appear to live in galaxies roughly forty times less massive than their SEDs suggest, implying black-hole-to-stellar mass ratios near ten percent.

desk verdict A genuinely new environmental method for AGN host masses that probably points in the right direction, but the central transfer assumption and tiny sample mean the 0.2 dex error is understated. read the letter →

arxiv 2412.02846 v1 pith:RQMCUAKM submitted 2024-12-03 astro-ph.GA

Jorryt Matthee , Rohan P. Naidu , Gauri Kotiwale , Lukas J. Furtak , Ivan Kramarenko , Ruari Mackenzie , Jenny Greene , Angela Adamo
show 9 more authors
Rychard J. Bouwens Claudia Di Cesare Anna-Christina Eilers Anna de Graaff Kasper E. Heintz Daichi Kashino Michael V. Maseda Sandro Tacchella Alberto Torralba
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.GA
keywords activegalacticnucleibroad-lineH-alphaemittersblackhole–galaxyscalingrelationsJWSTgrismspectroscopygalaxyoverdensityLittleRedDotshigh-redshiftsupermassiveholeshole–halomassrelation
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper tries to establish that the faint broad-line H-$\alpha$ emitters discovered by JWST are hosted by surprisingly low-mass galaxies, around 5×10⁷ solar masses, by measuring how many neighbors each AGN has on megaparsec scales instead of fitting its light. The authors calibrate an overdensity-to-stellar-mass relation using roughly three hundred spectroscopically confirmed star-forming galaxies in the same field, then apply it to six faint AGN with black-hole masses near $10^{6}$.8 solar masses. If the black-hole masses are taken at face value, the inferred hosts imply black holes weighing about 10 to 12.5 percent of their galaxy's stellar mass, far above the local relation. That result would matter because it sharpens the puzzle of how supermassive black holes grew so early, and it points toward either super-Eddington accretion with a low duty cycle or a genuine failure of standard galaxy-formation simulations to grow black holes in small halos.

What carries the argument

The central mechanism is the empirical overdensity–stellar-mass calibration: for galaxies without broad H-alpha, the number of neighbors within a 1 cMpc cylinder (normalized to the random expectation) rises monotonically with stellar mass, with slope b ≈ 3.2 in log10(Mstar/Msun). The calibration is made robust by removing satellite galaxies, defined as systems with a more massive companion within 3 arcseconds, and by checking that H-alpha-based selection does not bias the neighbor counts. The resulting relation is then inverted for the AGN, whose environments are measured with the same prescription, giving host stellar masses independent of the uncertain AGN contribution to the SED.

What would settle it

Measure the stellar mass of one of these six hosts directly, for example by fitting stellar absorption features in deep JWST/NIRSpec rest-frame optical spectra or by resolving the host galaxy with high-resolution imaging; a value above ~10⁹ solar masses (as the SED fits imply) would contradict the environmental inference, while agreement near $10^{7}$.7 solar masses would confirm it.

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Extended reading notes

Core claim

The paper's central claim is that the typical faint broad-line H-alpha emitter at z≈4–5 is hosted by a galaxy of stellar mass log10(Mstar/Msun) ≈ 7.7 ± 0.2, about 1.5 dex below the median mass inferred from galaxy-only SED fits. This is obtained by showing that megaparsec-scale overdensity correlates strongly with stellar mass in a reference sample of ~300 galaxies (at >6σ significance), and that the mean overdensity around the faint AGN, 1+δ ≈ 5.6, lands at the low-mass end of that relation. The authors then argue that taking the single-epoch virial black-hole masses at face value yields a black-hole-to-stellar mass ratio of roughly 12.5%, and that combining their measurements with more luminous z≈6 quasars reveals a tentative correlation between line width, black-hole mass, and overdensity, suggestive of a steep black-hole-to-halo mass relation at these redshifts.

Load-bearing premise

The method assumes that having a broad H-alpha line does not change how many neighboring galaxies an AGN has at a fixed stellar mass, so that the density–mass relation calibrated on ordinary galaxies applies to the AGN hosts.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • If the hosts are really as light as ~5×10⁷ solar masses, the implied black-hole-to-stellar mass ratio of ~12.5% is roughly two orders of magnitude above the local relation, confirming earlier 'overly massive black hole' claims with an SED-independent method.
  • The low inferred host masses place these AGN in strong tension with standard hydrodynamical simulations such as EAGLE and Illustris-TNG, which grow 10^7-solar-mass black holes mainly in galaxies of ~5×10⁹ solar masses.
  • A duty cycle of ~1% implied by comparing AGN number density to the abundance of low-mass galaxies supports a picture of short, super-Eddington accretion episodes, which would mean the single-epoch black-hole masses may be over-estimated by up to an order of magnitude.
  • The overdensity results disfavor the alternative that the broad Balmer lines arise from virial broadening in extremely dense stellar systems, since such an interpretation would require host masses near 3×10¹⁰ solar masses with overdensities about three times higher than observed.
  • The correlation between overdensity and black-hole mass (or line width) implies a luminosity-dependent diversity in AGN hosts, so that deeper surveys will preferentially find AGN in low-mass, blue, unclustered galaxies while rare luminous quasars will be found in massive, red, overdense hosts.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • A direct test would be to measure stellar absorption features (for example Balmer absorption in high-S/N JWST/NIRSpec spectra) in these same six AGN; if stellar masses of order 10^9–10^10 solar masses were found, the environmental calibration would be invalidated for AGN hosts.
  • The super-Eddington interpretation predicts strong H-alpha variability on rest-frame timescales of months to years, which could be tested with repeated grism observations of the same fields.
  • If the steep black-hole-to-halo mass relation extends to even fainter AGN, the same environmental technique applied to thousands of sources from upcoming wide-area grism surveys could map the growth of the first black holes without any SED assumptions.
  • The result adds to the emerging picture that many 'over-massive' black holes at high redshift may be a selection effect amplified by luminosity bias, but it also highlights that low-luminosity AGN in low-mass galaxies are a distinct population that simulations currently fail to reproduce.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 7 minor

Summary. This manuscript presents an environment-based method to infer the stellar masses of faint broad-line H-alpha (BL-Halpha) selected AGN at z ~ 4-5, independent of AGN-contaminated SED fitting. Using the deep ALT JWST/NIRCam grism survey behind Abell 2744, the authors measure Mpc-scale overdensities (1 + delta within 1 cMpc cylinders, Delta z/(1+z) < 0.005) around 7 BL-Halpha emitters and around a spectroscopically selected reference sample of 308 galaxies without broad lines whose SED-based masses are well determined. They establish a steep, highly significant correlation between overdensity and stellar mass in the reference sample (Eq. 1: b ~ 3.2, stronger than 6 sigma) and use it to invert the typical BL-Halpha overdensity (mean 5.6 +/- 1.2, excluding the exceptional ALT-66543) into a host stellar mass of log10(Mstar/Msun) = 7.7 +/- 0.2, about 1.5 dex below the median of galaxy-only SED fits. Together with single-epoch H-alpha BH masses (~10^6.8 Msun), this implies a BH-to-stellar mass ratio of ~12.5%. A UV-luminosity-based mass estimate provides a partially independent confirmation. The authors extend overdensity measurements to two z ~ 6.5 LRDs and five EIGER quasars plus one X-ray AGN, finding a tentative correlation between overdensity and BH mass and line width (Fig. 14), and discuss implications for super-Eddington accretion, the AGN duty cycle, feedback-free galaxy formation, and the diversity of AGN hosts.

Significance. The paper's core contribution is a genuinely SED-independent constraint on the host masses of high-redshift broad-line AGN, a population at the center of the 'overly massive black hole' debate; any independent handle on these masses is valuable, and the environment method is clever and, as presented, not circular: the delta-Mstar calibration is fit exclusively to galaxies without broad H-alpha and then applied to BL-Halpha emitters. The paper also ships useful controls: the companion H-alpha EW test (Section 4.5, Fig. 11) addresses the hazard of an H-alpha-selection-dependent neighbor census, and the UV mass-to-light cross-check (Section 5) independently corroborates the low-mass interpretation. The reference sample itself is a strong data product: ~300 galaxies with spectroscopic redshifts and 27-band photometry, with masses spanning 5 x 10^6 to 2 x 10^10 Msun.

major comments (3)
  1. [Section 5, Eq. (1)] The central inference is the conversion of measured overdensities into host stellar masses via Eq. (1), calibrated on galaxies without broad H-alpha. The paper states the assumption that BL-Halpha emitters follow the same overdensity-stellar mass relation as those galaxies, but this assumption is the single most load-bearing element in the analysis and is not tested. Because the calibration slope is steep (b = 3.19 +/- 0.34), a systematic offset of Delta(1+delta) = 1 changes the inferred log Mstar by 0.31 dex, and the quoted 12.5% BH-to-stellar ratio changes by roughly a factor of two. The companion H-alpha EW test in Section 4.5/Figure 11 validates that the neighbor census around AGN is not badly incomplete, but it does not constrain whether the AGN host galaxies themselves are more or less clustered than inactive galaxies at fixed stellar mass (e.g., merger-triggered accretion would bias the inferred mass high; a broad-line selection anticorrelated with environment would bias it low). I ask that the authors (a) quantify the systematic error budget by evaluating the inference under a range of assumed offsets in (1+delta) of, say, +/- 2, and report how the ratio, the comparison with simulations (Fig. 15), and the duty cycle estimate change; and (b) add the closest available direct test: a comparison of the distribution of BL-Halpha overdensities with the distribution for reference galaxies in the 10^7.5-10^8.5 Msun mass bins (data already underlying Fig. 8). I note that the qualitative conclusion, host masses roughly 1 dex below SED-based values, survives plausible offsets, but the quantitative headline numbers do not.
  2. [Section 5, quoted uncertainty] The quoted result log10(Mstar/Msun) = 7.7 +/- 0.2 is the scatter among four correlated estimates (1 vs 2 cMpc; all vs centrals), which share the same overdensity data and the same calibration sample, and each of which carries its own reported uncertainty of 0.3-0.5 dex. Propagating the mean overdensity uncertainty (5.6 +/- 1.2) through Eq. (1) alone gives +/- 0.38 dex, and including the errors on a and b raises this to roughly +/- 0.5 dex; the +/- 0.2 dex therefore understates the statistical error by about a factor of two or more before any systematic contribution. The inference is also sensitive to the treatment of ALT-66543: including that object raises the mean (1+delta) to 9.2, which under the linear relation corresponds to log Mstar ~ 8.7, a shift of roughly 1.1 dex (although this point lies beyond the calibrated range, and the authors rightly caution against extrapolation). I ask for a fully propagated uncertainty, a statement of the sensitivity to ALT-66543 in the mass estimate itself (not only in Fig. 12), and the individual inferred masses for the six objects, whose implied values span roughly 10^6-10^9 Msun from the tabulated overdensities.
  3. [Section 6, Table 3, Fig. 14] The title and abstract claim a 'black hole - halo mass relation at z ~ 5,' but Figure 14 combines samples at z = 4.5-6.5 that use different environment tracers (H-alpha for ALT; [OIII] for the UNCOVER and EIGER objects), different luminosity thresholds (L(H-alpha) > 2 x 10^41 vs L([OIII]) > 1.5 x 10^41 vs 10^42 erg/s), and includes two upper limits among the quasars. The apparent correlation is visually driven largely by the two most massive EIGER quasars (J0100+2802 and J0148+0600), which also have the largest Poisson errors. The text appropriately hedges this as 'tentative' and lists the complications, but the title does not. I request either a quantitative censored correlation estimate (e.g., Kendall's tau with upper limits) and a statement of whether the trend survives removing the two most massive quasars, or a tempering of the title and abstract to make the tentative nature explicit. This is a secondary claim relative to the host-mass inference, but it is a headline claim of the paper as titled.
minor comments (7)
  1. [Section 8, first implication bullet] There are two typos: 'at leat' should read 'at least' and 'this studies sample' should read 'this study's sample.'
  2. [Fig. 2 caption] The caption says the figure highlights how H-alpha luminosity and width map to SMBH mass and Eddington ratio, but it does not describe how to read the plotted grid contours; please add one sentence of explanation.
  3. [Section 4.2] The sentence 'these measurements do not suggest that BL-Halpha have an excessively large number of nearby pairs' should read 'BL-Halpha emitters,' and the earlier sentence 'do not appear strongly correlated with themselves' should read 'with each other.'
  4. [Fig. 14 and Table 3] Please state explicitly in the figure caption which error bars are shown: the EIGER quasar measurements carry ~0.3 dex systematic uncertainties on MBH that are discussed in the text but not visible in the figure.
  5. [Section 5, UV cross-check] The UV-based mass estimate of 10^7.7 +/- 0.2 (stat) +/- 0.5 (sys) Msun is presented as corroboration, but it inherits the reference-sample mass-to-light calibration; naming this dependence in the same sentence would make the level of independence of the two estimates clearer.
  6. [Abstract] The abstract's '~40 times lower' should be quoted as a range (e.g., '10-100 times lower') given the error-budget issues raised in the major comments, to avoid overprecision.
  7. [Section 4.2 / Table 2] The overdensity-mass calibration is fit in a single ~30 arcmin^2 field; a sentence estimating the possible impact of cosmic variance on the slope and intercept (e.g., from the redshift spikes visible in Fig. 6) would strengthen confidence in the empirical relation.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the host-mass inference is a calibration-prediction on an excluded sample, not a fit to the targets.

full rationale

The central derivation chain is self-contained. The overdensity–stellar mass calibration (Eq. 1: 1+δ = a + b log10(Mstar/1e9)) is fit only to the 308-galaxy reference sample of galaxies without broad Halpha, and the six BL-Halpha emitters are excluded from this fit; their measured mean overdensity (1+δ = 5.6±1.2) is then inserted into the fitted relation to obtain log Mstar = 7.7±0.2. The target quantity is therefore not an input to the calibration, so the inference is not forced by construction. The stated assumption that BL-Halpha emitters follow the same overdensity–stellar mass relation as non-AGN galaxies is an explicit transfer assumption (Section 5) and a possible source of systematic error, but it is not circular: it is an external validity condition, and the paper tests related biases with the Halpha EW comparison (Fig. 11) and the centrals-only variant. BH masses are derived from standard external single-epoch virial calibrations (Reines et al. 2013; Reines & Volonteri 2015; Greene & Ho 2005), independent of the environment method. Self-citations (Naidu & Matthee et al. 2024; Matthee et al. 2024) supply the survey catalog, redshifts, SED fits, and spectral-fitting methodology rather than the paper's conclusion; the environment-based host mass is additionally cross-checked with an independent UV mass-to-light estimate. No equation in the paper reduces to its own input, and no fitted parameter is renamed as a prediction. The residual concerns about AGN-triggered environmental bias and the small sample size are correctness risks, not circularity.

Assumptions & free parameters 2 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central inference is a two-step calibration: first a relation between overdensity and stellar mass is fit to reference galaxies (free parameters a, b), then that relation is inverted for the BL-Halpha sample. No new physical entities are introduced. The main assumptions are the transfer of the calibration to AGN hosts and the applicability of local virial BH mass recipes at high redshift.

free parameters (2)
  • Overdensity-stellar mass relation intercept a = 10.15 ± 0.46 (all galaxies, 1 cMpc)
    Linear fit to reference galaxies, Eq. 1.
  • Overdensity-stellar mass relation slope b = 3.19 ± 0.34 (all galaxies, 1 cMpc)
    Linear fit to reference galaxies, Eq. 1. Also fitted for centrals-only and 2 cMpc variants.
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption BL-Halpha emitters follow the same overdensity-stellar mass relation as galaxies without broad Halpha.
    Section 5. Load-bearing for the host mass inference.
  • domain assumption Broad Balmer line emission in these sources originates from AGN activity rather than virialized gas motions.
    Section 7.1. Justified partly by the overdensity argument, but assumed when computing BH masses.
  • domain assumption Single-epoch virial BH mass estimates calibrated locally (Reines et al. 2013, Greene & Ho 2005) apply at z~4-5.
    Section 3.1. Used to derive MBH for all sources; could be biased by super-Eddington accretion.
  • domain assumption SED-derived stellar masses of the reference galaxies are accurate.
    Section 3.2. Requires no AGN contamination and well-understood stellar populations; the reference galaxies are selected to be free of broad lines.
  • standard math Standard flat LambdaCDM cosmology
    Assumed throughout.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Environmental Evidence for Overly Massive Black Holes in Low Mass Galaxies and a Black Hole - Halo Mass Relation at $z \sim 5$." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/RQMCUAKM

@misc{pith2026241202846,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Environmental Evidence for Overly Massive Black Holes in Low Mass Galaxies and a Black Hole - Halo Mass Relation at $z \sim 5$},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/RQMCUAKM}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2412.02846}
}
read the original abstract

JWST observations have unveiled faint active galactic nuclei (AGN) at high-redshift that provide insights on the formation of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) and their coevolution with galaxies. However, disentangling stellar from AGN light in these sources is challenging. Here, we use an empirical approach to infer the average stellar mass of 6 faint broad line (BL) Halpha emitters at z = 4 - 5 with BH masses ~ 6 (4 - 15)x10^6 Msun, with a method independent of their spectral energy distribution (SED). We use the deep JWST/NIRcam grism survey ALT to measure the over-densities around BL-Halpha emitters and around a spectroscopic reference sample of ~300 galaxies. In our reference sample, we find that Mpc-scale over-density correlates with stellar mass, while pair counts are flat below ~50 kpc due to satellites. Their large-scale environments suggest that BL-Halpha emitters are hosted by galaxies with stellar masses ~5x10^7 Msun, ~40 times lower than those inferred from galaxy-only SED fits. Adding measurements around more luminous z~6 AGNs, we find tentative correlations between line width, BH mass and the over-density, suggestive of a steep BH to halo mass relation. The main implications are (1) when BH masses are taken at face value, we confirm extremely high BH to stellar mass ratios of ~10 %, (2) the low stellar mass galaxies hosting growing SMBHs are in tension with typical hydrodynamical simulations, except those without feedback, (3) a 1 % duty cycle implied by the host mass hints at super-Eddington accretion, which may imply over-estimated SMBH masses, (4) the masses are at odds with a high stellar density interpretation of the line broadening, (5) our results imply a diversity of galaxy masses, environments and SEDs among AGN samples, depending on their luminosity.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2412.02846 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. The Hα profiles of the main sample of BL-Hα emitters studied in this paper measured in the NIRCam grism data. Top panels show the 2D continuum-subtracted grism spectra. The middle panels show the optimally extracted 1D spectra. Blue lines show the data, where shaded regions show the errors. The black line shows the combined fit that is composed of a narrow and a broad Hα line and narrow [NII]. The red dashed and sol… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Compilation of Hα broad lines measured with JWST at z = 4 − 6 from NIRCam Grism (red hexagons this paper; green squares EIGER & FRESCO and ASPIRE in pink) and NIRspec (points, purple JADES, RUBIES and CEERS in blue and UNCOVER in orange) spectroscopy. We highlight how the Hα luminosity and width change with SMBH mass and Eddington ratio under the commonly adopted calibrations used. Three of the ALT sources are also … view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. SED fits of the six BL-Hα emitters that are the main focus of this paper. Orange curves and shaded regions show the best fit SEDs assuming pure stellar and nebular emission and their uncertainties that ignore an AGN contribution. Purple data points are measurements in broad-band filters, while blue data-points are medium-band filters. Inset stamps are false-color rest-frame UV RGB images of 2.4 ′′ × 2.4 ′′ based on … view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (15 more)
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: The observed F150W-F444W colors versus the (magnification corrected) F444W magnitude of our galaxy (points colored by their stellar mass) and Broad-Line Hα samples (black hexagons). The F150W-F444W colors probe the difference in the continuum level from rest-frame wave…
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Example SED fits of galaxies in the reference sample of galaxies without broad Hα lines in the ALT data. The masses increase from top to bottom – 107 , 108.5 , 1010 M⊙, respectively. Orange curves and shaded regions show the best fits and their uncertainties. Purple da…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The redshift distribution of our galaxy and BL￾Hα sample behind the Abell 2744 lensing cluster. Red lines mark the redshifts of the BL-Hα emitters. Dashed lines show the redshifts of the tentative broad line emitters discussed in the text and highlighted in [PITH_FULL…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: The environments of BL-Hα emitters (red hexagons), ordered from low density (top) to intermediate density (bottom). Left panels show the sky-plane distribution of the galaxy sample, where the grey region highlights the coverage (with µ < 3). Blue circles are our spectr…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: The average number of neighbouring galaxies within a radius R and ∆z/(1+z) < 0.005 for BL-Hα emitters (black; excluding ALT-66543 due to its exceptional luminos￾ity, see [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_8.png]
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: The distribution of the projected source￾plane separations between pairs of galaxies (with ∆z/(1 + z) < 0.005). Blue shows all pairs within our galaxy sample (where the shaded regions display the variation from bootstrap resamples). Blue and red solid lines show the di…
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: The distribution of rest-frame Hα EW of the companion galaxies as a function of projected radius around galaxies with masses ≈ 107.5 M⊙ (blue), ≈ 108.5 M⊙ (green) and ≈ 109.5 M⊙ (red) and BL-Hα emitters (black), demon￾strating that there is no significant bias due to …
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: shows that the over-density measured on 1 cMpc scales strongly correlates with stellar mass. We illustrate results for a 1 cMpc radius as a reference, but note our results do not strongly depend on this choice. The measured over-densities are listed in [PITH_FULL_IMA…
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: The relation between the stellar mass and SMBH mass for our BL-Hα emitter sample (dark red hexagon, where stellar mass is indirectly inferred from their environments), a JWST literature compilation at z ≈ 4 − 6 (blue points; where stellar mass is inferred from SED fit…
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: The relation between the over-density (within 1 cMpc cylinders centered on the AGN) and BH mass (top) and broad Balmer line FWHM (bottom). Dark red hexagons show our results for the BL-Hα emitters at z ≈ 4.5 from ALT, green points are ALT over-density measurements aro…
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: The relation between the stellar mass and su￾permassive black hole mass at z ≈ 5, comparing measure￾ments at z ≈ 5 (dark red and blue points from data as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_15.png]
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: The environments of Broad-line Hα emitters (as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p023_16.png]
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: The environments of Broad-line Hα emitters (as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p024_17.png]
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: The Hα profiles of the three suspected broad line emitters (as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p025_18.png]
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: SED fits of the three suspected BL-Hα emitters (as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p025_19.png]

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Reference graph

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 11, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.