Pith. sign in

REVIEW 3 major objections 4 minor 86 references

An ALMA Study of Molecular Complexity in the Hot Core G336.99-00.03 MM1

T0 review · 3 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-07 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗ Review JSON

Pith's one-line read An ALMA 3 mm line survey identifies the compact source G336.99-00.03 MM1 as a hot core with 19 molecular species, 8 isotopologues, and vibrationally/torsionally excited states, whose LTE-derived abundances largely match slow warm-up…

desk verdict Useful first systematic inventory of G336.99 MM1; the source-size assumption is the main weak point, but the core claims hold up. read the letter →

arxiv 2505.17403 v1 pith:S43QYRI7 submitted 2025-05-23 astro-ph.GA

Chunguo Duan , Qian Gou , Tie Liu , Fengwei Xu , Xuefang Xu , Junlin Lan , Ke Wang , Laurent Pagani
show 4 more authors
Donghui Quan Junzhi Wang Xunchuan Liu Mingwei He
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.GA
keywords StarformationIsotopicabundancesComplexorganicmoleculesInterstellarmediumhotcoreALMAastrochemistrymolecularlinesurvey
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

Using ALMA 3 mm observations, the paper tries to establish that the compact millimeter source MM1 in G336.99-00.03 is a hot core: its spectrum carries more than 300 emission lines from 19 molecular species plus 8 isotopologues and vibrationally/torsionally excited states, while the neighboring source MM2 shows only 7 lines from 5 simple molecules and is classified as an HII region. If correct, MM1 provides one of the more complete molecular inventories of a hot core at 3 mm, with LTE-derived rotational temperatures of 73 to 249 K and column densities spanning $4.42\times10^{14}$ to $4.00\times10^{18}$ cm$^{-2}$. The paper further claims that MM1's molecular abundances mostly agree within an order of magnitude with those of other hot cores and with slow warm-up chemical models, and that isotopic ratios in MM1 are broadly consistent with Galactic trends except for a low $^{12}$C/$^{13}$C from HC$_3$N and a low $^{16}$O/$^{18}$O from CH$_3$OH, which the authors attribute to optical-depth and source-size effects.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing analysis is local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) spectral synthesis: observed line profiles are fit with synthetic spectra produced by the LINEDB and WEEDS routines in CLASS using spectroscopic parameters from the CDMS and JPL databases. Five parameters are adjusted—source size, line width, velocity offset, rotational temperature, and column density—with source size fixed to the deconvolved 3 mm continuum size and excitation temperature fixed to 146 K for species detected in only one or two lines. This machinery turns line counts and intensities into rotational temperatures, column densities, isotopic ratios, and abundances, which are then compared with literature abundances and with slow, medium, and fast warm-up chemical model predictions.

What would settle it

Resolve the HC$_3$N and CH$_3$OH line-emitting regions with sub-arcsecond ALMA observations and compare their measured sizes with the continuum source: if the true emitting regions are significantly more compact than the deconvolved 3 mm size, then the opacity-corrected $^{12}$C/$^{13}$C and $^{16}$O/$^{18}$O ratios should rise toward the Galactic gradient values, confirming the paper's proposed source-size and optical-depth explanation rather than real isotopic anomalies.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

On the paper's own terms, the central claim is that G336.99-00.03 MM1 is a hot core whose 3 mm line spectrum is rich enough to support an LTE molecular inventory: 19 distinct species, 8 isotopologues, vibrationally excited HC$_3$N and C$_2$H$_5$CN, and torsionally excited CH$_3$OH, with rotational temperatures of 73 to 249 K, column densities of $4.42\times10^{14}$ to $4.00\times10^{18}$ cm$^{-2}$, and an H$_2$ column density of $(1.79\pm0.36)\times10^{24}$ cm$^{-2}$. The sibling source MM2 lacks this complexity, showing only CS, SO, SO$_2$, HC$_3$N, CH$_3$OH, and CH$_3$CHO plus radio recombination lines, which places it in the HII-region stage. The paper also claims that the derived $^{12}$C/$^{13}$C ratios (16.0 to 29.2), $^{16}$O/$^{18}$O (47.7), and $^{32}$S/$^{34}$S (19.2) mostly follow Galactic gradient relations, and that MM1's abundances match three-phase warm-up chemistry models, especially the slow warm-up timescale, within about an order of magnitude for most species.

Load-bearing premise

The derived abundances and isotope ratios rest on the assumption that each molecule emits from the same area as the deconvolved 3 mm continuum source and that the lines are in LTE; if the emitting regions are more compact or not optically thin, the numbers shift, with a larger assumed source size moving the low $^{12}$C/$^{13}$C and $^{16}$O/$^{18}$O ratios upward toward Galactic expectations.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • MM1 is established as a chemically rich hot core and MM2 as an HII region, providing two clear evolutionary stages within a single high-mass star-forming region.
  • The LTE-derived molecular inventory and parameters can serve as a benchmark for astrochemical models of complex organic molecules in hot cores.
  • Slow warm-up timescale models reproduce most observed abundances, while CH$_3$NC, several sulfur species, HC$_3$N, and (CH$_2$OH)$_2$ stand out as discrepancies that future models will need to explain.
  • The low $^{12}$C/$^{13}$C and $^{16}$O/$^{18}$O ratios derived from HC$_3$N and CH$_3$OH are likely affected by optical depth and source size, so higher-resolution multi-transition observations would refine or overturn the reported isotope ratios.
  • Correlations among O-bearing molecule abundances weaken when normalized to CH$_3$OH instead of H$_2$, cautioning against strong chemical-link claims based on H$_2$-normalized abundances alone.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the low $^{12}$C/$^{13}$C and $^{16}$O/$^{18}$O ratios are purely opacity and source-size artifacts, then the true isotopic ratios of this source at a galactocentric distance of 3.3 kpc may fall squarely on the Galactic gradient; a single sub-arcsecond map of HC$_3$N and CH$_3$OH isotopologue emission could test this directly.
  • The strong H$_2$-normalized correlations among O-bearing COMs that weaken under CH$_3$OH normalization may reflect common dependence on total gas column density rather than shared chemistry; a larger sample with independent H$_2$ measurements would settle the issue.
  • The severe model deficiency for CH$_3$NC hints at missing gas-phase or grain-surface formation and destruction routes, and searching for CH$_3$NC in other slow-warm-up hot cores would show whether this discrepancy is unique to MM1.
  • Applying the same LTE inventory method to higher-frequency ALMA data of this region could reveal whether the chemical difference between MM1 and MM2 is a sharp evolutionary transition or a gradual gradient in molecular destruction.
Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Signed reviews

No signed human review yet.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 4 minor

Summary. This paper presents an ALMA Band 3 line survey (97.5–101.4 GHz) of the high-mass star-forming region G336.99-00.03, focusing on two millimeter continuum sources, MM1 and MM2. The authors identify 19 molecular species and 8 isotopologues in MM1 from over 300 transitions, and 5 species in MM2 from 7 transitions. Under an LTE assumption, they derive rotational temperatures (73–249 K), column densities (4.42e14–4.00e18 cm^-2), and molecular abundances relative to H2 and CH3OH. Isotopic ratios 12C/13C, 16O/18O, and 32S/34S are reported and compared with Galactic gradient relations. The abundances are compared with those of other hot cores and with the three-phase warm-up models of Garrod et al. (2022), leading to the conclusion that MM1 is a hot core, MM2 is an HII region, and the slow warm-up model best reproduces the observed abundances.

Significance. If the quantitative results hold, the paper provides a valuable addition to the limited sample of detailed hot-core molecular inventories, and it supplies isotopic ratios at a Galactocentric distance of 3.3 kpc that can be compared with Galactic chemical evolution trends. The strength of the work is the careful line identification over a broad frequency range, the use of multiple transitions for many species, and the authors' explicit statements of caveats concerning optical depth, fixed excitation temperatures, and the speculative nature of formation pathways. The paper is an observational inventory rather than a derivation, so circularity is not a concern; self-citations to the ATOMS and QUARKS surveys provide context rather than supporting the central result. The main limitations are systematic uncertainties in the LTE modeling that are acknowledged but not quantified.

major comments (3)
  1. [Sect. 3, Table 5] The adopted source size for all LTE fits is the deconvolved 3 mm continuum size (Table 1), but the line-emitting regions of HC3N and CH3OH are measured to be more compact (1.69'' and 1.61''; Sect. 4.3 and Table 5). Because N_T, X_H2, and isotope ratios all scale with the assumed source solid angle, the quoted values in Tables 3 and 4 carry a source-size systematic that is not propagated into any error bar. For species with emission more compact than the continuum, the shifts can be comparable to or larger than the reported statistical uncertainties. I request a quantitative treatment: either refit HC3N and CH3OH with the measured line sizes and recompute the isotope ratios, or quote abundance and ratio ranges from a plausible compactness range, or explicitly present the affected values as lower/upper limits.
  2. [Sect. 4.2, Table 3] For molecules with only one or two detected transitions, Trot is fixed to 146 K (e.g., HC3N, HC13CCN, HCC13CN, 13CH3CH2CN, CS, 34SO). The derived column densities and the isotope ratios built from these species (Table 4) therefore depend directly on this assumed temperature, but no uncertainty from the fixed Trot is propagated into the quoted errors. This is particularly relevant for the 12C/13C values from HC3N and 13CH3CH2CN, where the authors themselves caution that only one clean transition was used. The paper should either provide a sensitivity estimate (e.g., column density and ratio changes for Trot = 100–200 K) or list these values with a caveat that they are conditional on the fixed temperature.
  3. [Sect. 4.3, Table 5] The isotope-ratio results are derived from lines with non-negligible optical depths: HC3N 11–10 has tau = 1.05, and the CH3OH lines used for the oxygen ratio have tau = 0.54–0.61. The paper notes this in the text and states that the effect is small, but it still reports 12C/13C = 16.0–17.1 for HC3N and 16O/18O = 47.7 as the headline numbers. Because these values deviate substantially from the Galactic gradient predictions (Eqs. 2 and 4) and the opacity bias acts in the direction of lowering the ratios, the quoted numbers should either be corrected using the measured opacities or be presented explicitly as lower limits where the opacity correction is not applied.
minor comments (4)
  1. [Sect. 4.4] The text refers to 'G336.99-00.06' when describing the compactness of molecular emission; this should read G336.99-00.03.
  2. [Fig. 9 caption] The caption labels the source as G336.999-00.03; there is an extra digit in the declination component.
  3. [Abstract and Sect. 6] The abstract states 'strong agreement' with chemical models, while Sect. 5.3.2 and Fig. 11 show that CH3NC exceeds the modeled abundance by more than two orders of magnitude and several S-bearing species are not reproduced. The wording should be softened to 'partial agreement' for consistency with the presented results.
  4. [Table 4 and Fig. 8] The single-transition 32S/34S value from SO/34SO is presented with a small statistical error but is subject to the same fixed-Trot and source-size systematics as the carbon and oxygen ratios; the figure legend does not distinguish which ratios are based on one transition, so adding a marker or note would help the reader.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the molecular inventory, LTE column densities, and isotope ratios are derived directly from observed line data and compared against external benchmarks and models.

full rationale

This is an observational LTE excitation analysis, not a derivation whose conclusion is fed back into its inputs. Rotational temperatures and column densities are obtained by fitting observed line intensities with fixed external spectroscopic data from CDMS/JPL under stated assumptions (LTE, source size equal to the deconvolved 3 mm continuum size, and Trot fixed to 146 K for species with one or two lines). These assumptions are external inputs, not definitions of the target result. The isotope ratios are ratios of fitted column densities, not fitted parameters relabeled as predictions; the paper explicitly flags the optical-depth and source-size caveats that affect them. The abundance comparison with Garrod et al. (2022) is external, as the models were not tuned to MM1 abundances, and the model comparison is performed using CH3OH-normalized abundances, so the uncertain NH2 normalization is not load-bearing for that comparison. Self-citations to the ATOMS and QUARKS surveys (Liu et al. 2020, 2024b) appear only for data provenance, context, and a galactocentric-distance reference used in the Galactic-gradient comparison; the ALMA data are public and the quantitative claims are independently testable. Formation-pathway suggestions are explicitly labeled speculative ('we emphasize that these proposed mechanisms remain speculative'). No equation in the paper reduces a claimed prediction to a fitted input, and no load-bearing argument rests on an unverified self-citation. The main weaknesses (source-size assumption, fixed 146 K for sparse-line species, opacity effects on isotope ratios) are systematic-accuracy risks, which the authors partially acknowledge, not circularity.

Assumptions & free parameters 2 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

No new physical entities are introduced. The central quantitative claims rest on standard LTE radiative transfer, dust-emission assumptions from the literature, and the hand-set 146 K value for sparsely sampled species.

free parameters (2)
  • Excitation temperature for molecules with fewer than 3 clean transitions = 146 K
    Set by hand to the average gas temperature; directly determines column densities for CS, 34SO, NH2D, HC3N, HC13CCN, HCC13CN, and 13CH3CH2CN in Table 3.
  • Dust temperature for the H2 column density = 146 K (assumed equal to the average rotational temperature)
    Eq. (1) uses Bnu(Tdust); a different dust temperature changes every abundance relative to H2.
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption LTE holds for all fitted molecular emission
    Sect. 3: 'Under the assumption of the local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE), LINEDB and WEEDS... were used to identify and model the observed lines.' If violated, the derived Trot and column densities are biased.
  • domain assumption Molecular emitting regions have the same size as the deconvolved 3 mm continuum sources
    Sect. 3 adopts the continuum deconvolved sizes as source sizes; Sect. 5.1 shows that this choice affects opacity estimates and isotope ratios.
  • domain assumption Dust emission is optically thin with Rgd=100, mu=2.8, kappa_nu=0.2 cm2/g, and Tdust equal to the average rotational temperature
    Eq. (1) in Sect. 4.2 computes NH2 from Snu under these assumptions; all absolute abundances scale with this NH2.
  • domain assumption Spectroscopic parameters from CDMS and JPL are accurate enough for line identification
    Sect. 3 relies on CDMS and JPL as 'the foundational molecular parameters required for line identification'; misassignments would change the inventory.
  • domain assumption Galactocentric gradient relations of Yan et al. (2019, 2023) and Wilson (1999) are valid at DGC=3.3 kpc
    Sect. 5.1 compares the derived isotope ratios to these fits and interprets deviations as opacity, fractionation, or photodissociation effects.

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of An ALMA Study of Molecular Complexity in the Hot Core G336.99-00.03 MM1." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/S43QYRI7

@misc{pith2026250517403,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: An ALMA Study of Molecular Complexity in the Hot Core G336.99-00.03 MM1},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/S43QYRI7}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2505.17403}
}
abstract

High-mass star formation involves complex processes, with the hot core phase playing a crucial role in chemical enrichment and the formation of complex organic molecules. However, molecular inventories in hot cores remain limited. Using data from the ALMA Three-millimeter Observations of Massive Star-forming regions survey (ATOMS), the molecular composition and evolutionary stages of two distinct millimeter continuum sources in the high-mass star forming region G336.99-00.03 have been characterized. MM1, with 19 distinct molecular species detected, along with 8 isotopologues and several vibrationally/torsionally excited states, has been identified as a hot core. MM2 with only 5 species identified, was defined as a HII region. Isotopic ratios in MM1 were derived, with $^{12}$C/$^{13}$C ranging from 16.0 to 29.2, $^{16}$O/$^{18}$O at 47.7, and $^{32}$S/$^{34}$S at 19.2. Molecular abundances in MM1 show strong agreement with other sources and three-phase warm-up chemical models within an order of magnitude for most species. Formation pathways of key molecules were explored, revealing chemical links and reaction networks. This study provides a detailed molecular inventory of two millimeter continuum sources, shedding light on the chemical diversity and evolutionary processes in high-mass star-forming regions. The derived molecular parameters and isotopic ratios offer benchmarks for astrochemical models, paving the way for further investigation into the formation and evolution of complex organic molecules during the hot core phase.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2505.17403 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. (a) Spitzer pseudo-color map showing emissions at 3.6 µm (blue), 4.5 µm (green), and 8.0 µm (red). Overlaid white contours represent ATLASGAL 870 µm continuum emission at levels of 1.8, 3.0, 4.5, 5.9, 7.5, 9.0, and 10.7 Jy beam−1 . A 1 pc scale bar is shown in the lower left corner. (b) The ATOMS field of view of G336.99-00.03, with the 3 mm continuum emission as the background. The angular resolution, which is repr… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. (a) Three-millimeter continuum image of G336.99-00.03 obtained with ALMA band 3. Contour levels are drawn at (3, 6, 15, 30, 60)×σ, where σ=0.3 mJy beam−1 is the rms noise level of the 3 mm continuum image. The white ellipse indicates the synthesized beam (1.70′′×1.49′′, (position angle = 88.1 ◦ )). (b) Observed spectra between 97.55 and 97.85 GHz towards MM1 (top panel) and MM2 (bottom panel). The brightness tempera… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Observed and synthetic spectra for MM1 and MM2. Black lines indicate the observed spectra, while red lines represent the modeled spectra. This segment covers the frequency range 97.55 - 98.52 GHz. Remaining frequencies are shown in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_3.png] view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (12 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Distribution of X-bearing species (X = C, N, O, S) in MM1 and MM2, shown as both number and percentage. 4.2. Excitation temperatures, column densities, and abundances relative to H2 This study pays particular attention towards MM1, the source with the brightest continu…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Integrated emission maps of S-bearing molecules in G336.99-00.03, overlaid with 3 mm continuum emission contours. Contour levels are drawn at (3, 6, 15, 30, 60)×σ, where σ=0.3 mJy beam−1 is the rms noise level of the 3 mm continuum image. The solid ellipse in the botto…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Integrated emission maps of O-bearing molecules in G336.99-00.03, overlaid with 3 mm continuum emission contours. Details are as described in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_6.png]
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Integrated emission maps of N-bearing molecules in G336.99-00.03, overlaid with 3 mm continuum emission contours. Details are as described in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_7.png]
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Isotopic ratios of 12C/13C, 32S/34S and 16O/18O at DGC=3.3 kpc, derived using Equations by Yan et al. (2019, 2023); Wilson (1999). Solid lines indicate first-order polynomial fits, with gray-, blue-, green-shaded areas showing the 1σ intervals. Hollow diamonds represen…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Upper panel: Abundances of S-bearing, N-bearing and O-bearing molecules relative to H2 in G336.999-00.03 MM1 and other sources. Lower panel: Abundances of S-bearing, N-bearing and O-bearing molecules relative to CH3OH in G336.999- 00.03 MM1 and other sources. All abund…
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: (a) Heat maps showing the correlation of the observed molecular abundances with respect to H2 of five O-bearing species: CH3OH, CH3CHO, CH3OCHO, C2H5OH, and CH3OCH3. (b) The correlation of the observed molecular abundances with respect to CH3OH of four O-bearing speci…
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Comparison between the observed molecular abundances relative to CH3OH (Xobs) and the peak gas-phase molecular abundances predicted by models (Xmod), based on data from Garrod et al. (2022). Bars represent the Xobs / Xmod ratio, with dashed lines indicating values tha…
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Observed and modeled synthetic spectra for MM1 and MM2. The black solid lines represent the observed spectra, while the red solid lines correspond to the modeled spectra. Unidentified lines are marked in red and labeled as “Unknown” [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_…
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Scatter plots of molecular abundances with respect to H2, arranged consistently with the layout of the panel (a) of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p023_13.png]
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Scatter plots of molecular abundances with respect to CH3OH, arranged consistently with the layout of the panel (b) of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p024_14.png]
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Comparison of the observed molecular temperatures in G336.99-00.03 MM1 (cyan bars) with the temperatures corresponding to the peak gas-phase molecular abundances predicted by models from Garrod et al. (2022). Colored bars represent the molecular temperatures derived f…

Discussion (0). Continue with ORCID to comment.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

86 extracted references · 17 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    2015, MNRAS, 453, L31, doi: 10.1093/mnrasl/slv094

    Barone, V., Latouche, C., Skouteris, D., et al. 2015, MNRAS, 453, L31, doi: 10.1093/mnrasl/slv094

    doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slv094 2015

  2. [2]

    T., M¨ uller, H

    Belloche, A., Garrod, R. T., M¨ uller, H. S. P., et al. 2019, A&A, 628, A10, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201935428

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935428 2019

  3. [3]

    Belloche, A., M¨ uller, H. S. P., Garrod, R. T., & Menten, K. M. 2016, A&A, 587, A91, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201527268

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527268 2016

  4. [4]

    2013, A&A, 559, A47, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201321096

    Comito, C. 2013, A&A, 559, A47, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201321096

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321096 2013

  5. [5]

    A., Garrod, R

    Belloche, A., Meshcheryakov, A. A., Garrod, R. T., et al. 2017, A&A, 601, A49, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201629724

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629724 2017

  6. [6]

    Kaiser, R. I. 2007, ApJ, 660, 1588, doi: 10.1086/511296

    doi:10.1086/511296 2007

  7. [7]

    J., & Kaiser, R

    Bennett, C. J., & Kaiser, R. I. 2007, ApJ, 661, 899, doi: 10.1086/516745

    doi:10.1086/516745 2007

  8. [8]

    A., Phillips, T

    Bergin, E. A., Phillips, T. G., Comito, C., et al. 2010, A&A, 521, L20, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201015071

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201015071 2010

Show all 86 references
  1. [9]

    Wachter, E. B. M. 2007, A&A, 465, 913, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20065963

    2007 doi

  2. [10]

    T., et al

    Bonfand, M., Belloche, A., Garrod, R. T., et al. 2019, A&A, 628, A27, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201935523

    2019 doi

  3. [11]

    M., Garrod, R

    Bonfand, M., Belloche, A., Menten, K. M., Garrod, R. T., & M¨ uller, H. S. P. 2017, A&A, 604, A60, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201730648

    2017 doi

  4. [12]

    2022, A&A, 662, A32, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202140519

    Bouscasse, L., Csengeri, T., Belloche, A., et al. 2022, A&A, 662, A32, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202140519

    2022 doi

  5. [13]

    F., Millar, T

    Chapman, J. F., Millar, T. J., Wardle, M., Burton, M. G., & Walsh, A. J. 2009, MNRAS, 394, 221, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14144.x

    2009

  6. [14]

    J., Fedoseev, G., Scir` e, C., et al

    Chuang, K. J., Fedoseev, G., Scir` e, C., et al. 2021, A&A, 650, A85, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202140780

    2021 doi

  7. [15]

    2017, A&A, 605, L3, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201731249

    Codella, C., Ceccarelli, C., Caselli, P., et al. 2017, A&A, 605, L3, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201731249

    2017 doi

  8. [16]

    M., et al

    Coletta, A., Fontani, F., Rivilla, V. M., et al. 2020, A&A, 641, A54, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202038212

    2020 doi

  9. [17]

    M., Beltr´ an, M

    Colzi, L., Rivilla, V. M., Beltr´ an, M. T., et al. 2021, A&A, 653, A129, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202141573

    2021 doi

  10. [18]

    2021, CARTA: The Cube Analysis and Rendering Tool for Astronomy, 2.0.0, Zenodo, doi: 10.5281/zenodo.4905459

    Comrie, A., Wang, K.-S., Hsu, S.-C., et al. 2021, CARTA: The Cube Analysis and Rendering Tool for Astronomy, 2.0.0, Zenodo, doi: 10.5281/zenodo.4905459

    2021 doi

  11. [19]

    K., van der Wiel, M

    Coutens, A., Jørgensen, J. K., van der Wiel, M. H. D., et al. 2016, A&A, 590, L6, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201628612

    2016 doi

  12. [20]

    R., Garrod, R

    Coutens, A., Willis, E. R., Garrod, R. T., et al. 2018, A&A, 612, A107, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201732346

    2018 doi

  13. [21]

    M., Lucas, D

    Douglas, K. M., Lucas, D. I., Walsh, C., et al. 2022, ApJL, 937, L16, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ac8cef

    2022 doi

  14. [22]

    W., Cuppen, H

    Fuchs, G. W., Cuppen, H. M., Ioppolo, S., et al. 2009, A&A, 505, 629, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/200810784

    2009 doi

  15. [23]

    Garrod, R. T. 2013, ApJ, 765, 60, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/765/1/60

    2013 doi

  16. [24]

    T., Belloche, A., M¨ uller, H

    Garrod, R. T., Belloche, A., M¨ uller, H. S. P., & Menten, K. M. 2017, A&A, 601, A48, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201630254

    2017 doi

  17. [25]

    T., Jin, M., Matis, K

    Garrod, R. T., Jin, M., Matis, K. A., et al. 2022, ApJS, 259, 1, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ac3131

    2022 doi

  18. [26]

    T., Widicus Weaver, S

    Garrod, R. T., Widicus Weaver, S. L., & Herbst, E. 2008, in IAU Symposium, Vol. 251, Organic Matter in Space, ed. S. Kwok & S. Sanford, 123–124, doi: 10.1017/S1743921308021339

    2008 doi

  19. [27]

    2021, A&A, 648, A66, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202039670

    Gieser, C., Beuther, H., Semenov, D., et al. 2021, A&A, 648, A66, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202039670

    2021 doi

  20. [28]

    J., & Van Der Walt, D

    Goedhart, S., Gaylard, M. J., & Van Der Walt, D. J. 2004, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 355, 553, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08340.x

    2004

  21. [29]

    2020, ApJ, 895, 86, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab8871

    Gorai, P., Bhat, B., Sil, M., et al. 2020, ApJ, 895, 86, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab8871

    2020 doi

  22. [30]

    T., Ilyushin, V., & Ziurys, L

    Halfen, D. T., Ilyushin, V., & Ziurys, L. M. 2011, ApJ, 743, 60, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/743/1/60

    2011 doi

  23. [31]

    T., Woolf, N

    Halfen, D. T., Woolf, N. J., & Ziurys, L. M. 2017, ApJ, 845, 158, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa816b

    2017 doi

  24. [32]

    E., Herbst, E., & Garrod, R

    Hassel, G. E., Herbst, E., & Garrod, R. T. 2008, ApJ, 681, 1385, doi: 10.1086/588185

    2008 doi

  25. [33]

    Henkel, C., Guesten, R., & Gardner, F. F. 1985, A&A, 143, 148

    1985

  26. [34]

    2009, ApJ, 691, 823, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/691/1/823

    Hosokawa, T., & Omukai, K. 2009, ApJ, 691, 823, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/691/1/823

    2009 doi

  27. [35]

    K., Thiel, V., Henkel, C., et al

    Humire, P. K., Thiel, V., Henkel, C., et al. 2020, A&A, 642, A222, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202038216 Jørgensen, J. K., Belloche, A., & Garrod, R. T. 2020, ARA&A, 58, 727, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-032620-021927

    2020 doi

  28. [36]

    2013, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol

    Kahane, C., Ceccarelli, C., Faure, A., & Caux, E. 2013, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol. 476, New Trends in Radio Astronomy in the ALMA Era: The 30th Anniversary of Nobeyama Radio Observatory, ed. R. Kawabe, N. Kuno, & S. Yamamoto, 323

    2013

  29. [37]

    L., Evans, N

    Kauffmann, J., Bertoldi, F., Bourke, T. L., Evans, N. J., I., & Lee, C. W. 2008, A&A, 487, 993, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:200809481

    2008 doi

  30. [38]

    Walmsley, C. M. 2000, in Protostars and Planets IV, ed. V. Mannings, A. P. Boss, & S. S. Russell, 299–326

    2000

  31. [39]

    D., & Penzias, A

    Langer, W. D., & Penzias, A. A. 1990, ApJ, 357, 477, doi: 10.1086/168935 Molecular Complexity of G336 27 —. 1993, ApJ, 408, 539, doi: 10.1086/172611

    1990 doi

  32. [40]

    J., Zhang, Q., ¨Oberg, K

    Law, C. J., Zhang, Q., ¨Oberg, K. I., et al. 2021, ApJ, 909, 214, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/abdeb8

    2021 doi

  33. [41]

    S., et al

    Liu, T., Lacy, J., Li, P. S., et al. 2017, ApJ, 849, 25, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa8d73

    2017 doi

  34. [42]

    J., Kim, K.-T., et al

    Liu, T., Evans, N. J., Kim, K.-T., et al. 2020, MNRAS, 496, 2790, doi: 10.1093/mnras/staa1577

    2020 doi

  35. [43]

    2022, ApJS, 263, 13, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ac9127 —

    Liu, X., Liu, T., Shen, Z., et al. 2022, ApJS, 263, 13, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ac9127 —. 2024a, ApJS, 271, 3, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ad1601

    2022 doi

  36. [44]

    2024b, Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics, 24, 025009, doi: 10.1088/1674-4527/ad0d5c

    Liu, X., Liu, T., Zhu, L., et al. 2024b, Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics, 24, 025009, doi: 10.1088/1674-4527/ad0d5c

    doi

  37. [45]

    H., Gibb, A

    MacDonald, G. H., Gibb, A. G., Habing, R. J., & Millar, T. J. 1996, A&AS, 119, 333

    1996

  38. [46]

    I., & Jones, B

    Maity, S., Kaiser, R. I., & Jones, B. M. 2015, Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics (Incorporating Faraday Transactions), 17, 3081, doi: 10.1039/C4CP04149F

    2015 doi

  39. [47]

    2016, MNRAS, 458, 1859, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw457

    Majumdar, L., Gratier, P., Vidal, T., et al. 2016, MNRAS, 458, 1859, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw457

    2016 doi

  40. [48]

    2024, A&A, 687, A195, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202450023

    Marchand, P., Coutens, A., Scigliuto, J., et al. 2024, A&A, 687, A195, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202450023

    2024 doi

  41. [49]

    2011, A&A, 526, A47, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201015487

    Maret, S., Hily-Blant, P., Pety, J., Bardeau, S., & Reynier, E. 2011, A&A, 526, A47, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201015487

    2011 doi

  42. [50]

    J., et al

    McElroy, D., Walsh, C., Markwick, A. J., et al. 2013, A&A, 550, A36, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201220465

    2013 doi

  43. [51]

    2007, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol

    Golap, K. 2007, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol. 376, Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems XVI, ed. R. A. Shaw, F. Hill, & D. J. Bell, 127

    2007

  44. [52]

    2005, ApJ, 634, 1126, doi: 10.1086/497123 M¨ uller, H

    Wyckoff, S. 2005, ApJ, 634, 1126, doi: 10.1086/497123 M¨ uller, H. S. P., Schl¨ oder, F., Stutzki, J., & Winnewisser, G. 2005, Journal of Molecular Structure, 742, 215, doi: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2005.01.027 M¨ uller, H. S. P., Thorwirth, S., Roth, D. A., &

    2005 doi

  45. [53]

    2001, A&A, 370, L49, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20010367 M¨ uller, H

    Winnewisser, G. 2001, A&A, 370, L49, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20010367 M¨ uller, H. S. P., Belloche, A., Xu, L.-H., et al. 2016, A&A, 587, A92, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201527470

    2001 doi

  46. [54]

    L., van Dishoeck, E

    Nazari, P., van Gelder, M. L., van Dishoeck, E. F., et al. 2021, A&A, 650, A150, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202039996

    2021 doi

  47. [55]

    D., van Gelder, M

    Nazari, P., Meijerhof, J. D., van Gelder, M. L., et al. 2022, A&A, 668, A109, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202243788

    2022 doi

  48. [56]

    H., Zingsheim, O., Belloche, A., et al

    Ordu, M. H., Zingsheim, O., Belloche, A., et al. 2019, A&A, 629, A72, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201935887

    2019 doi

  49. [57]

    1994, A&A, 291, 943

    Ossenkopf, V., & Henning, T. 1994, A&A, 291, 943

    1994

  50. [58]

    2022, MNRAS, 512, 4419, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac624

    Peng, Y., Liu, T., Qin, S.-L., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 512, 4419, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac624

    2022 doi

  51. [59]

    M., Poynter, R

    Pickett, H. M., Poynter, R. L., Cohen, E. A., et al. 1998, JQSRT, 60, 883, doi: 10.1016/S0022-4073(98)00091-0

    1998 doi

  52. [60]

    2022, MNRAS, 511, 3463, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac219

    Qin, S.-L., Liu, T., Liu, X., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 511, 3463, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac219

    2022 doi

  53. [61]

    2007, A&A, 474, 521, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20078246 Qu´ enard, D., Jim´ enez-Serra, I., Viti, S., Holdship, J., &

    Quan, D., & Herbst, E. 2007, A&A, 474, 521, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20078246 Qu´ enard, D., Jim´ enez-Serra, I., Viti, S., Holdship, J., &

    2007 doi

  54. [62]

    2018, MNRAS, 474, 2796, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx2960

    Coutens, A. 2018, MNRAS, 474, 2796, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx2960

    2018 doi

  55. [63]

    M., Garay, G., Jackson, J

    Rathborne, J. M., Garay, G., Jackson, J. M., et al. 2011, ApJ, 741, 120, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/741/2/120

    2011 doi

  56. [64]

    2018, ACS Earth and Space Chemistry, 2, 720, doi: 10.1021/acsearthspacechem.7b00156

    Rimola, A., Skouteris, D., Balucani, N., et al. 2018, ACS Earth and Space Chemistry, 2, 720, doi: 10.1021/acsearthspacechem.7b00156

    2018 doi

  57. [65]

    Wilson, T. L. 2010, A&A, 523, A45, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/200913359

    2010 doi

  58. [66]

    2006, A&A, 454, L41, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20065398

    Schilke, P., Comito, C., Thorwirth, S., et al. 2006, A&A, 454, L41, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20065398

    2006 doi

  59. [67]

    N., Chapman, J

    Sevenster, M. N., Chapman, J. M., Habing, H. J., Killeen, N. E. B., & Lindqvist, M. 1997, A&AS, 124, 509, doi: 10.1051/aas:1997365

    1997 doi

  60. [68]

    2021, ApJ, 922, 206, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac289b

    Shimonishi, T., Izumi, N., Furuya, K., & Yasui, C. 2021, ApJ, 922, 206, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac289b

    2021 doi

  61. [69]

    C., Peng, R., Danchi, W

    Sutton, E. C., Peng, R., Danchi, W. C., et al. 1995, ApJS, 97, 455, doi: 10.1086/192147

    1995 doi

  62. [70]

    2018, ApJS, 237, 3, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/aac8db

    Suzuki, T., Ohishi, M., Saito, M., et al. 2018, ApJS, 237, 3, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/aac8db

    2018 doi

  63. [71]

    2019, ApJ, 881, 57, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab2d9e

    Taniguchi, K., Herbst, E., Caselli, P., et al. 2019, ApJ, 881, 57, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab2d9e

    2019 doi

  64. [72]

    2016, ApJ, 830, 106, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/830/2/106

    Taniguchi, K., Saito, M., & Ozeki, H. 2016, ApJ, 830, 106, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/830/2/106

    2016 doi

  65. [73]

    A., et al

    Taniguchi, K., Sanhueza, P., Olguin, F. A., et al. 2023, ApJ, 950, 57, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/acca1d

    2023 doi

  66. [74]

    S., K¨ onig, C., Giannetti, A., et al

    Urquhart, J. S., K¨ onig, C., Giannetti, A., et al. 2018, MNRAS, 473, 1059, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx2258 van Dishoeck, E. F., & Blake, G. A. 1998, ARA&A, 36, 317, doi: 10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.317 van Gelder, M. L., Tabone, B., Tychoniec, L., et al. 2020, A&A, 639, A87, doi: 1...

    2018 doi

  67. [75]

    Vidal, T. H. G., Loison, J.-C., Jaziri, A. Y., et al. 2017, MNRAS, 469, 435, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx828

    2017 doi

  68. [76]

    C., Herbst, E., et al

    Wakelam, V., Loison, J. C., Herbst, E., et al. 2015, ApJS, 217, 20, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/217/2/20

    2015 doi

  69. [77]

    J., Burton, M

    Walsh, A. J., Burton, M. G., Hyland, A. R., & Robinson, G. 1998, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 301, 640, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-8711.1998.02014.x 28 Duan et al

    1998

  70. [78]

    J., Hyland, A

    Walsh, A. J., Hyland, A. R., Robinson, G., & Burton, M. G. 1997, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 291, 261, doi: 10.1093/mnras/291.2.261

    1997 doi

  71. [79]

    2002, ApJL, 571, L173, doi: 10.1086/341412

    Watanabe, N., & Kouchi, A. 2002, ApJL, 571, L173, doi: 10.1086/341412

    2002 doi

  72. [80]

    R., Garrod, R

    Willis, E. R., Garrod, R. T., Belloche, A., et al. 2020, A&A, 636, A29, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201936489

    2020 doi

  73. [81]

    Wilson, T. L. 1999, Reports on Progress in Physics, 62, 143, doi: 10.1088/0034-4885/62/2/002

    1999 doi

  74. [82]

    L., & Rood, R

    Wilson, T. L., & Rood, R. 1994, ARA&A, 32, 191, doi: 10.1146/annurev.aa.32.090194.001203

    1994

  75. [83]

    2024, Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics, 24, 065011, doi: 10.1088/1674-4527/ad3dc3

    Xu, F., Wang, K., Liu, T., et al. 2024, Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics, 24, 065011, doi: 10.1088/1674-4527/ad3dc3

    2024 doi

  76. [84]

    T., Zhang, J

    Yan, Y. T., Zhang, J. S., Henkel, C., et al. 2019, ApJ, 877, 154, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab17d6

    2019 doi

  77. [85]

    T., Henkel, C., Kobayashi, C., et al

    Yan, Y. T., Henkel, C., Kobayashi, C., et al. 2023, A&A, 670, A98, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202244584

    2023 doi

  78. [86]

    2023, MNRAS, 521, 1578, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stad627

    Zhang, X., Quan, D., Li, R., et al. 2023, MNRAS, 521, 1578, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stad627

    2023 doi

Pith tools

Reviewed August 7, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.