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arxiv: 2602.17767 · v2 · pith:V4AMLKPUnew · submitted 2026-02-19 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

There and back again? Neutral outflows in z~3.5 quiescent galaxies

Pengpei Zhu , Kei Ito , Francesco Valentino , Massissilia Hamadouche , Gianluca Scarpe , Katherine E. Whitaker , Takumi Kakimoto , William M. Baker
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Anna R. Gallazzi Steven Gillman Rashmi Gottumukkala Christian Kragh Jespersen Minju Lee Allison W. S. Man Georgios Magdis Masato Onodera Rhythm Shimakawa Aswin Vijayan Po-Feng Wu
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Pith reviewed 2026-05-22 10:48 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords neutral outflowsquiescent galaxieshigh-redshiftNaI D absorptionJWSTgalaxy quenchingfeedback
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The pith

Neutral outflows in z~3.5 quiescent galaxies can suppress star formation but remain bound and recycle gas on short timescales.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

This paper studies neutral gas outflows in 23 massive quiescent galaxies at redshifts from 2.82 to 4.61 using JWST NIRSpec and NIRCam data. Neutral gas is traced via the NaI D absorption lines, which are detected in 57 percent of the targets, with 30 percent showing clear blueshifted outflows. The mass outflow rates inferred from these detections are large enough to potentially stop star formation in these galaxies. However, the outflows do not reach escape velocity and are expected to fall back, leading to gas recycling within 3 to 180 million years depending on the galaxy's potential well and where the gas is launched. The findings indicate that these outflows are part of a feedback process that maintains quiescence through gas cycling rather than expelling material permanently.

Core claim

The authors claim that in their sample of z~3.5 quiescent galaxies, the neutral outflows detected via NaI D have mass outflow rates that can suppress star formation, yet the gas remains bound to the galaxy and will recycle back on timescales of roughly 3 to 180 Myr. This is supported by the velocity offsets being comparable to local galaxies and the lack of strong ongoing AGN correlation, with all detected systems showing AGN or LI(N)ER signatures possibly from episodic activity.

What carries the argument

NaI D doublet absorption features that reveal the presence, velocity, and column density of neutral gas in outflows from quiescent galaxies.

If this is right

  • The inferred outflow rates are sufficient to suppress star formation in all detected systems.
  • The outflows are bound and will recycle gas back into the galaxy on short timescales.
  • Neutral outflows may be driven by fossil or episodic AGN activity.
  • Gas cycling rather than permanent removal is a signature of feedback-regulated quenching at these redshifts.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Quiescence in high-redshift massive galaxies may be sustained by repeated gas recycling cycles instead of a one-time blowout.
  • The similarity to local outflow properties suggests the driving mechanisms have not changed much over cosmic time.
  • Observations at higher spectral resolution could test the assumptions used to convert absorption to outflow rates.

Load-bearing premise

The translation of NaI D absorption strength and velocity into a mass outflow rate uses fixed values for covering fraction, ionization, and density taken from local galaxy studies.

What would settle it

A measurement showing that the actual gas covering fraction or density in these high-redshift systems differs substantially from local calibrations, which would change the derived outflow rates enough to no longer suppress star formation.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2602.17767 by Allison W. S. Man, Anna R. Gallazzi, Aswin Vijayan, Christian Kragh Jespersen, Francesco Valentino, Georgios Magdis, Gianluca Scarpe, Katherine E. Whitaker, Kei Ito, Masato Onodera, Massissilia Hamadouche, Minju Lee, Pengpei Zhu, Po-Feng Wu, Rashmi Gottumukkala, Rhythm Shimakawa, Steven Gillman, Takumi Kakimoto, William M. Baker.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: DeepDive Na i D detected spectra, including tentative detections. The first and third rows show the median-normalized spectra in black and best-fit stellar continuum in red; the second and fourth rows show the continuum-normalized (i.e., flux/continuum) spectra and the MCMC best-fit for Na i D absorption. The spectral S/N of each normalized spectrum is labeled on the lower left, and the target’s DD-ID is l… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: DeepDive QGs plotted on the redshift–stellar mass plane. The Na i D blueshift (tentatively) detected targets are in (hollow) red circles, and the systemic targets are in cyan squares. The Na i D excess absorption non-detections are plotted as gray tri￾angles. No targets are detected below a stellar mass threshold of 1010.5M⊙. The median S/N ratios for galaxies above and below this threshold are indicated. … view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: SFR100 Myr as a function of stellar mass and Na i D (or Mg ii for the gray markers) velocity offset. The red hollow/filled circles are the blueshifted Na i D (tentatively) detected DD targets (black hexagons frame the merging pair in Ito et al. 2025b), and the cyan squares are the systemic/redshifted Na i D targets. The big orange and small yellow triangles represent the local quiescent (stacked with SFR u… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The Na i D velocity offset ∆v as a function of stellar mass (Left), and post-burst age (time passed since 90% of M⋆ formed, Right). The blueshifted Na i D (tentatively) detected DeepDive targets are plotted as hollow/red circles, and the systemic targets as cyan squares. As a comparison, SLZ24 local PSBs are plotted as yellow triangles. The median stack of the DeepDive targets (excluding the merging pair, … view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Left: The SFR100Myr vs. the mass outflow rate. All the DeepDive targets show higher mass outflow rates than the ongoing SFR, implying the neutral gas outflow is able to suppress the ongoing star formation. Right: The dynamical mass escape velocity at reff vs. the outflow velocity. Most DeepDive targets show an outflow velocity smaller than the escape velocity, meaning that the blueshifted neutral gas is no… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: BPT diagram of the DeepDive targets with a constrained [N ii]/Hα ratio. The black dashed curve/line shows the Kewley et al. (2001), and Fernandes et al. (2010) demarcations of star￾forming, AGN-dominated, and LI(N)ER-like galaxies, respec￾tively. The black scatter in the background shows the SDSS DR7 galaxies (Abazajian et al. 2009). The blueshifted Na i D (tenta￾tively) detected DD targets are plotted as … view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Neutral gas outflows play a crucial role in the baryon cycle of galaxies, their properties provide key insights into the transition from star formation to quiescence. In this work, we investigate the neutral gas outflow of 23 massive ($M_\star = 10^{10.1-11.6}\,\rm M_\odot$) quiescent galaxies (QGs) at z=2.82--4.61, selected from the JWST NIRSpec (R~1000) and NIRCam program DeepDive. We trace the neutral gas outflows using the NaI Doublet absorption lines and detect excess NaI D in 13/23 (57%) targets, of which 7/23 (30%) show blueshifted absorption with velocity offsets $|{\Delta}v|$ >~ 150 km/s. The z ~ 3.5 targets have ${\Delta}v$ similar to those of their local counterparts; they are also equivalent when compared in SFR--${\Delta}v$ space. We derive mass outflow rates and identify the most extreme neutral gas outflow rate $\log(\dot M_{\rm out} / \mathrm{M_\odot \, yr}^{-1})=2.68\pm0.27$ beyond the local Universe, coincident with an X-ray AGN. For all NaI D detected systems, the inferred mass outflow rate can, in principle, suppress ongoing star formation; however, the outflows are unlikely to escape their hosts, suggesting recycling on relatively short timescales (~3--180 Myr), depending on the assumed potential and launching radius. All NaI D detected targets occupy the LI(N)ER region of the BPT diagram and/or are X-ray detected, but we find no strong correlation between ongoing AGN and the neutral outflow: 2/4 broad-line/X-ray AGNs are NaI D undetected -- yet, the outflows can be powered by fossil/episodic AGNs, and one broad-line target shows a possible P-Cygni profile that indicates strong outflows. As neutral outflows alone are not able to permanently quench star formation by removing gas in our sample at z ~ 3.5, the presence of gas cycling in and out of massive passive systems may instead be the signature of feedback-regulated quenching-maintenance processes.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper reports JWST NIRSpec/NIRCam observations of NaI D absorption in 23 massive quiescent galaxies at 2.82 < z < 4.61. Excess NaI D is detected in 13/23 targets (57%), with blueshifted absorption (|Δv| ≳ 150 km s⁻¹) in 7/23 (30%). Mass outflow rates are derived for the detected systems; the most extreme value is log(Ṁ_out) = 2.68 ± 0.27 M⊙ yr⁻¹. The authors conclude that the inferred Ṁ_out values are sufficient to suppress residual star formation but that v_out < v_esc for plausible halo potentials and launch radii, implying short-timescale recycling (~3–180 Myr). All NaI D detections lie in the LI(N)ER region or are X-ray detected, though no strong correlation with ongoing AGN activity is found.

Significance. If the absolute Ṁ_out values and escape-velocity comparisons are robust, the work supplies direct evidence that neutral-gas recycling operates in z ~ 3.5 quiescent galaxies and may contribute to feedback-regulated maintenance of quiescence. The sample size and redshift range are strengths; the extreme outflow rate coincident with an X-ray AGN is noteworthy. The manuscript does not yet demonstrate that the local-calibrated conversion factors remain valid at z ~ 3.5.

major comments (2)
  1. [§4 (mass-outflow-rate derivation)] §4 (or equivalent results/derivation section): the conversion from observed NaI D equivalent width to N(Na I), then to M_out and Ṁ_out, adopts f_cover ≈ 1, a local-metallicity Na abundance scaling, and an ionization correction calibrated on z ≈ 0 starbursts. These choices are load-bearing for both the suppression claim (Ṁ_out > SFR) and the recycling claim (v_out < v_esc). No sensitivity analysis or high-z justification is provided; changes of factors of a few in ionization fraction or covering factor would alter the conclusions.
  2. [§4.2 (escape-velocity comparison)] §4.2 and associated tables/figures: error propagation, geometry assumptions (spherical shell vs. biconical), and the adopted launching radius are not shown. The headline statement that outflows are “unlikely to escape” depends quantitatively on these choices; the range 3–180 Myr is quoted but the underlying v_esc calculation is not reproduced.
minor comments (2)
  1. [§5 (AGN discussion)] The BPT classification and X-ray detection statistics are presented without a control sample of star-forming galaxies at the same redshift and mass; this limits the strength of the AGN–outflow discussion.
  2. [Figures 3–5] Figure captions and axis labels should explicitly state the assumed values of f_cover, n_H, and launch radius used for each Ṁ_out point.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We are grateful to the referee for their thorough review and valuable feedback on our manuscript. Their comments highlight important aspects of our analysis that require further clarification and expansion. We address each major comment below and outline the revisions we will make to strengthen the paper.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: §4 (mass-outflow-rate derivation): the conversion from observed NaI D equivalent width to N(Na I), then to M_out and Ṁ_out, adopts f_cover ≈ 1, a local-metallicity Na abundance scaling, and an ionization correction calibrated on z ≈ 0 starbursts. These choices are load-bearing for both the suppression claim (Ṁ_out > SFR) and the recycling claim (v_out < v_esc). No sensitivity analysis or high-z justification is provided; changes of factors of a few in ionization fraction or covering factor would alter the conclusions.

    Authors: We thank the referee for pointing this out. While our derivations follow standard methods used in the literature for both local and high-redshift studies, we agree that a more explicit discussion of the assumptions and their potential impact at z ~ 3.5 is warranted. In the revised manuscript, we will add a sensitivity analysis in Section 4, varying the covering factor (f_cover = 0.5-1), Na abundance by factors of 2, and ionization corrections by up to a factor of 3. We will also cite relevant high-z studies that employ similar NaI D-based outflow measurements to justify the local calibrations. These additions will show that our conclusions regarding Ṁ_out > SFR and the recycling scenario remain robust within reasonable uncertainties. revision: yes

  2. Referee: §4.2 (escape-velocity comparison): error propagation, geometry assumptions (spherical shell vs. biconical), and the adopted launching radius are not shown. The headline statement that outflows are “unlikely to escape” depends quantitatively on these choices; the range 3–180 Myr is quoted but the underlying v_esc calculation is not reproduced.

    Authors: We acknowledge that the details of the escape velocity calculations and associated assumptions were not fully detailed in the original submission. In the revised version, we will expand Section 4.2 to include: (1) the explicit equations and parameters used for v_esc, including the assumed halo potentials and launch radii (ranging from 1 to 10 kpc); (2) a discussion of geometry assumptions (spherical vs. biconical outflows); (3) full error propagation including uncertainties in velocity, radius, and mass. We will also reproduce the calculation leading to the 3-180 Myr recycling timescale range in a new table or appendix for transparency. This will allow readers to better assess the robustness of the 'unlikely to escape' conclusion. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; observational derivation relies on external calibrations

full rationale

The paper reports direct measurements of NaI D absorption equivalent widths and velocity offsets in JWST spectra of z~3.5 quiescent galaxies, then applies standard conversion formulas to obtain mass outflow rates. These rates are compared to independently measured SFRs and to escape velocities computed from assumed halo potentials and launch radii. No step equates a derived quantity to its own input by construction, renames a fitted parameter as a prediction, or rests on a self-citation chain for a uniqueness claim. The assumptions (covering fraction, ionization correction, gas density) are explicitly stated as external and local-calibrated; their uncertainty affects the strength of the conclusions but does not create circular equivalence within the paper's own equations.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

2 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

Mass outflow rates and recycling timescales rest on several standard but untested assumptions for high-redshift systems; no new particles or forces are introduced.

free parameters (2)
  • launching radius
    Used to compute dynamical timescales and whether outflow exceeds escape velocity; value not specified in abstract.
  • neutral gas covering fraction and density
    Required to convert NaI D equivalent width and velocity into mass outflow rate; typical local values assumed.
axioms (2)
  • domain assumption NaI D absorption traces outflowing neutral atomic gas
    Standard tracer assumption invoked to link observed absorption to mass outflow.
  • domain assumption Outflow geometry and velocity structure allow simple spherical or biconical models
    Implicit in deriving mass rates and escape likelihood from line profiles.

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Forward citations

Cited by 2 Pith papers

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score.

  1. A Census of Na D-traced neutral ISM and outflows at $0.6<z<4$

    astro-ph.GA 2026-04 unverdicted novelty 7.0

    A JWST census detects neutral ISM absorption in 76 of 309 galaxies at 0.6<z<4 and outflows in 26, indicating AGN-driven neutral outflows dominate in quiescent systems at cosmic noon.

  2. DeepDive: Simultaneous Formation of Massive Quiescent Galaxies in High-Redshift Galaxy Proto-clusters

    astro-ph.GA 2026-04 unverdicted novelty 6.0

    JWST data show massive quiescent galaxies in high-redshift proto-clusters formed and quenched simultaneously, with AGN signatures, indicating environmental triggering of quenching.

Reference graph

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