Performance of Silicon photomultipliers at low temperatures

Aleksei Semakin; Janne Ahokas; Otto Hanski; Sampsa Ahopelto; Sergey Vasiliev; Tom Kiilerich; Viacheslav Dvornichenko

REVIEW 4 major objections 6 minor 15 references

Performance of Silicon photomultipliers at low temperatures

T0 review · 4 major / 6 minor · reviewed 2026-08-10 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read Under true dark conditions below 40 K, both tested silicon photomultipliers develop a second tunneling breakdown that sharply limits their usable bias range, with the narrowest window near 23 K; below 5 K they recover a 3-5 V operating…

desk verdict Useful cryogenic SiPM characterization with a real methodological advance (dark shutter), but the headline 'tunneling breakdown' is an unproven mechanism, not a settled result. read the letter →

arxiv 2501.03812 v2 pith:VDKDPEUN submitted 2025-01-07 physics.ins-det physics.atom-ph

Otto Hanski , Tom Kiilerich , Sampsa Ahopelto , Aleksei Semakin , Janne Ahokas , Viacheslav Dvornichenko , Sergey Vasiliev This is my paper · ORCID

classification physics.ins-detphysics.atom-ph PACS 85.60.Gz07.20.Mc

keywords siliconphotomultiplierSiPMcryogenicdetectortunnelingbreakdowndarkcountratephotondetectionefficiencyafterpulsinglow-temperaturecharacterization

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper reports a cryogenic limitation of silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs): below 40 K, under a true dark condition in which all room-temperature infrared radiation is blocked by a cold shutter, both tested devices show a sudden, steep growth of photocurrent at a voltage $V_t$ above the normal Geiger breakdown $V_{bd}$. The paper attributes this second breakdown to band-to-band or trap-assisted tunneling and shows that it defines the upper edge of the usable bias range. The operating window between $V_{bd}$ and $V_t$ is narrowest near 23 K, where the Hamamatsu chip allows only about 0.3 V of overvoltage, and recovers to 3-5 V below about 5 K for both chips. This matters for cryogenic single-photon detection because it gives a concrete bias ceiling for SiPMs in dilution refrigerators and explains why earlier measurements saw an apparent afterpulse-induced current rise: with the shutter open, infrared leakage masks the tunneling breakdown.

What carries the argument

The central object is the photocurrent-versus-bias characteristic of a SiPM measured with a closed cryogenic shutter, which yields two distinct thresholds: the usual Geiger avalanche at $V_{bd}$ and a second, sharply rising breakdown at $V_t$. The cryogenic shutter is the enabling apparatus because it blocks room-temperature infrared photons leaking through the optical fiber, removing the afterpulse-train photocurrent that otherwise masks $V_t$; the paper defines the cryogenic operating voltage range as the interval between $V_{bd}$ and $V_t$.

What would settle it

At 23 K with the shutter closed, sweep the bias across $V_t$ while counting individual Geiger pulses with a fast oscilloscope. If $V_t$ is a true second breakdown, single-photon pulse rate should rise steeply with overvoltage and pulse shape should remain stable; if the photocurrent rise is a setup artifact, current will grow without countable pulses or the chip temperature will drift upward from afterpulse-train heating.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

Using a cryogenic shutter to create a true dark condition, the study establishes that the Hamamatsu S13370-6050CN and Onsemi MicroFJ-30035-TSV SiPMs both exhibit a normal Geiger breakdown at $V_{bd}$ followed at higher bias by a second breakdown $V_t$, a steep photocurrent rise whose value depends strongly on temperature. $V_t$ has a pronounced minimum near 23 K, shrinking the overvoltage range to about 0.3 V for the Hamamatsu device; below roughly 5 K the range recovers to 3-5 V for both devices, and the Onsemi chip retains more than 12 V of operating range near 40 K. The paper interprets $V_t$ as direct band-to-band or trap-assisted tunneling in the high-field SPAD junction, an effect observable only when thermal excitations and stray infrared photons are frozen out, which is why previous work attributed the same photocurrent growth to self-sustaining afterpulse trains.

Load-bearing premise

The sharp photocurrent rise at $V_t$ is an intrinsic breakdown of the SPAD microcells rather than an artifact of the bias circuit, amplifier chain, or self-heating from afterpulse trains; the paper measures only total photocurrent versus voltage and does not verify single-cell Geiger-pulse behavior at $V_t$.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

If the paper is right, cryogenic SiPM users must determine $V_t$ as well as $V_{bd}$; the usable overvoltage window is $V_t - V_{bd}$, and near 23 K that window nearly closes for the Hamamatsu chip.
Below about 5 K, both tested chips regain a 3-5 V overvoltage window, so dilution-refrigerator experiments can operate at bias margins comparable to room-temperature recommendations.
The Onsemi chip at about 40 K has a usable window larger than 12 V, making it attractive for photocurrent measurements requiring a wide dynamic range.
The Onsemi fast-output channel fails below 110 K, but a room-temperature high-pass RC filter on the normal output restores clean pulse counting, so metal-quench-resistor chips lose their apparent low-temperature advantage.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

The authors leave implicit that the usable bias window is non-monotonic in temperature, so a fixed bias cannot serve a cryogenic experiment that sweeps temperature; a working detector would need to track $V_t$ in real time.
A testable extension is to count single-cell Geiger pulses across $V_t$ at 23 K with the shutter closed; if $V_t$ is intrinsic tunneling breakdown, countable single-photon pulses should persist and grow with overvoltage, whereas a setup artifact would show photocurrent growth without countable pulses.
Because the second breakdown is visible only when stray infrared is blocked, earlier open-shutter characterizations of cryogenic SiPMs may have overestimated the usable overvoltage range; re-testing those devices with a cold shutter would clarify whether the effect is generic.
The strong temperature dependence of $V_t$ between 20 and 30 K suggests a thermally assisted tunneling process, so modelling $V_t(T)$ could extract trap energy levels and guide dopant engineering for cryogenic SiPMs.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

Worth a look if you work with SiPMs in dilution fridges. The genuinely new thing is the closed-shutter control: by blocking room-temperature IR from the fiber, they get a true dark condition below 100 K, and then they see a second, sharp photocurrent rise at a voltage Vt well above Vbd, with a pronounced minimum near 23 K and recovery below 5 K. That observation, plus the comparison with the open-shutter case reproducing Zhang's afterpulse-runaway behavior, is solid and useful. They also ship code and data on GitHub, which is more than most instrumentation papers do.

What I'd push back on: they call it tunneling breakdown in the abstract, and that's speculation. The evidence is total photocurrent versus voltage. They don't show single-cell Geiger pulses, dark count rates, or chip temperature at Vt. Their own Section 3.5 says afterpulsing probability increases with overvoltage and can create roughly 1 ms trains that cause heating. So the same steep current rise could be an afterpulse/thermal runaway in the quenching network rather than an intrinsic avalanche-independent tunneling. The shutter removes IR-initiated trains, but residual dark counts below 1 Hz remain, and those could seed runaway at sufficiently high overvoltage. The temperature dependence of Vt with a minimum near 23 K is also consistent with trap-release or quench-resistor behavior. So the practical warning—operating range collapses near 23 K—might be real for this circuit, but the mechanism claim goes beyond the data. They also have no error bars, one sample per model, and no quantitative afterpulsing correction in the PDE curves, though the PDE result agrees with prior work.

If I were the editor, I'd send it to review. The empirical mapping of Vt(T) for two commercial devices is a useful data point, the shutter method is a step forward, and the concerns are addressable. The authors should show pulse waveforms or at least a dark-count histogram near Vt, add error bars, and soften the abstract. Credit where due: the paper is clearly written, the open/closed shutter control is a real control, and the self-citation is legitimate context. The central observation is probably real; the mechanism is not established.

Referee Report

4 major / 6 minor

Summary. The paper reports a cryogenic characterization of two commercial SiPMs (Onsemi MicroFJ-30035-TSV and Hamamatsu S13370-6050CN) from 90 mK to 40 K, including pulse shapes, breakdown voltages, dark count rates, afterpulsing, photon detection efficiency, and thermal cycling. The central new observation is a steep, temperature-dependent rise in photocurrent at a voltage Vt above the normal breakdown voltage Vbd under closed-shutter (true dark) conditions below 40 K, interpreted as a second tunneling breakdown that limits the usable overvoltage range, with a pronounced minimum operating range near 25 K. The authors also reproduce earlier reports of afterpulse-train-induced photocurrent when the shutter is open and find that both devices survive thermal cycling.

Significance. If the identification of Vt as an intrinsic breakdown is correct, the paper provides an important practical constraint for cryogenic SiPM operation: the operating voltage window collapses near 20-30 K and recovers below 5 K, which is directly relevant to experiments using SiPMs in dilution refrigerators. The use of a cryogenic shutter to achieve a true dark condition is a methodological improvement over prior work, and the paper includes a useful dataset of pulse shapes, DCR, PDE, and thermal-cycling behavior, with code and data available on GitHub. However, the central interpretation of Vt rests on total-photocurrent measurements alone; the evidence does not yet exclude afterpulse-train or thermal-runaway mechanisms, so the main quantitative claim requires additional verification.

major comments (4)

[Sec. 3.3, Fig. 4] The claim that the steep photocurrent rise at Vt is a tunneling breakdown of the SPAD microcells is supported only by a total-current-versus-voltage curve. The paper does not show single-cell Geiger pulses, dark-count-rate versus overvoltage, or chip-temperature records in the Vt region. Section 3.5 itself reports afterpulse trains lasting up to 1 ms and heating from afterpulse-train-induced photocurrent, so a self-sustaining afterpulse or thermal runaway in the quenching network is a plausible alternative explanation. Please add pulse-level waveforms at Vt (or a DCR-vs-overvoltage measurement) and a chip-temperature monitor during the current rise, or explicitly rule out dark-count-initiated trains, before asserting that Vt is an intrinsic breakdown.
[Sec. 3.4, Fig. 5] The quantitative operating-range claim (e.g., 0.3 V at 25 K for Hamamatsu) has no stated uncertainty or measurement statistics. No error bars appear in Figs. 4, 5, or 7, and the number of repeated measurements is not given. Because the operating range is a difference between two voltages determined from curve features, the uncertainty on Vt and Vbd is essential for assessing whether the 0.3 V window is significant. Please provide uncertainties and a description of how Vt was extracted from the data.
[Sec. 3.3] The paper asserts a 'true dark condition' with the closed shutter, but also states that residual dark counts below 1 Hz remain, possibly from scattered thermal photons or cosmic rays. Since dark count rate increases with overvoltage and Section 3.5 notes that afterpulsing probability increases with overvoltage, the sub-1 Hz dark counts could seed afterpulse trains that masquerade as a breakdown current. Please quantify the dark count rate as a function of overvoltage up to Vt, or otherwise show that the closed-shutter photocurrent rise is not initiated by these residual events.
[Sec. 3.3] The interpretation of the pronounced minimum in Vt near 23 K as a tunneling threshold is not supported by any microscopic model or temperature-dependence comparison. Trap release times and quench-resistor behavior also vary strongly in this range, and the paper provides no evidence distinguishing these. If the pulse-level tests above confirm an intrinsic breakdown, the temperature dependence should be discussed in terms of the known physics of band-to-band or trap-assisted tunneling.

minor comments (6)

[Abstract, Sec. 2, Table 1] The UV wavelength is given as both 275 nm (Abstract, Table 1) and 270 nm (Sec. 2, Sec. 3.6); please make the notation consistent.
[Conclusions] The Hamamatsu model is referred to as S13371-6050CN in the Conclusions, while Sec. 2 and Table 1 use S13370-6050CN; please correct the discrepancy.
[Fig. 5] No error bars or discrete measurement points are visible in the operating-range plots; please clarify whether the curves are fits or interpolations and show the underlying data.
[Sec. 3.5] The statement 'We did not do a quantitative analysis of the afterpulsing effects' leaves the afterpulse-trains claim qualitative; a quantitative bound on afterpulse probability or train duration would strengthen the paper.
[Sec. 3.2] The sentence 'the dark count rate strongly depends on the position of the shutter above SiPM' is vague; specify the shutter geometry and the measured DCR values for open and closed positions.
[Sec. 2] The author contributions contain a grammatical error ('Data collection and was done by Tom Kiilerich'), and the sentence 'The fiber has also been thermalized at several temperatures (4 K, 1 K, mixing chamber) along the way' is awkward; please rephrase.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 1.0 of 10

No significant circularity: central claims are direct measurements with external manufacturer calibrations; self-citations are contextual only.

full rationale

This is an experimental characterization paper, not a derivation. The low-temperature PDE values are normalized to manufacturer room-temperature PDE specifications as an external calibration point (Sec. 3.6: 'Using these data as a calibration point for our light source, we are able to calculate the relative PDE of the sensor at lower temperatures without knowing the absolute value of the incident photon flux.'), so the low-temperature claims are not fitted inputs renamed as predictions. Breakdown voltages Vbd and Vt are directly extracted from pulse-height and photocurrent measurements (Sec. 3.3), and the operating range is defined as the measured interval between them; no equation defines Vt in terms of the operating range or vice versa. Self-citations (refs. [1], [9], [11]) provide motivation, setup details, and data availability, but the central claims do not reduce to them. The identification of Vt as a tunneling breakdown is presented as a suggestion, and the paper's own Sec. 3.5 documents afterpulse trains and heating effects that could complicate the interpretation; that is a robustness/correctness concern, not circularity, because the claim is not derived from the afterpulse model.

Assumptions & free parameters 2 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 0 invented entities

No new physical entities are introduced. The central claims rest on measured currents and pulse statistics, with the main model assumption being the tunneling explanation for the second breakdown. The calibration relies on manufacturer datasheet values and the Poisson model, both standard tools.

free parameters (2)

PDE measurement overvoltage = 2.5 V
Chosen by the authors to limit afterpulsing; all PDE points in Fig. 7 are measured at this overvoltage, so the reported temperature dependence is conditional on this choice.
LED drive currents for Vbd measurement = 10 uA (blue), 50 uA (UV)
Low LED currents used to excite countable pulses for breakdown-voltage extraction; the resulting photon flux is not independently calibrated.

assumptions (4)

domain assumption Geiger-mode avalanche model: a single charge carrier above breakdown triggers a self-sustaining avalanche.
Used throughout Section 3.3 to interpret breakdown and to define Vbd as the voltage where photosensitivity rises sharply.
ad hoc to paper Tunneling (band-to-band or trap-assisted) is the cause of the second breakdown.
The paper states this only as a suggestion in Section 3.3; it is not independently measured or verified by microcell-level data.
standard math Photon counts follow Poisson statistics, allowing the mean photon number per pulse to be extracted from a fit.
Used in Section 3.6 for the relative PDE measurement.
domain assumption Manufacturer room-temperature PDE values are accurate enough to serve as absolute calibration for the LED flux.
Section 3.6 calibrates the relative low-temperature PDE against Table 1, which comes from Hamamatsu and Onsemi datasheets.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Performance of Silicon photomultipliers at low temperatures." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/VDKDPEUN

@misc{pith2026250103812,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Performance of Silicon photomultipliers at low temperatures},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/VDKDPEUN}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2501.03812}
}

abstract

We present experimental results of characterization of Silicon photomultipliers (SiPM) in a temperature range from 90~mK to 40~K. Two SiPMs, one from ONSEMI and one from Hamamatsu Photonics were tested. Operating voltage ranges, dark count rates, afterpulsing effects and photon detection efficiencies (PDE) were determined with illumination by 275 and 470~nm light fed into the cryostat via an optical fiber. A cryogenic shutter provided a true dark condition, where thermal radiation from room temperature is shielded and the thermal excitations in the chips are frozen. A second tunneling breakdown was observed at this condition, which substantially limits the operating voltage range for the temperatures 20-30 K. Below $\sim$5 K, both SiPMs recover to an operating over-voltage range of 3-5 V. We found the chips function through the entire tested temperature range, and are capable of withstanding thermal cycling with no major performance degradation.

Discussion (0). Continue with ORCID to comment.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 10, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.

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Ahokas, J., Semakin, A., J¨ arvinen, J., Hanski, O., Laptiyenko, A., Dvornichenko, V., Salo- nen, K., Burkley, Z., Crivelli, P., Golovizin, A., et al.: A large octupole magnetic trap for research with atomic hydrogen. Review of Scientific Instruments 93(2) (2022) https: //doi.org/10.1063/5.0070037

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Wiesinger, M., Stuhlmann, F., Bohman, M., Micke, P., Will, C., Yildiz, H., Abbass, F., Arndt, B.P., Devlin, J.A., Erlewein, S., Fleck, M., J¨ ager, J.I., Latacz, B.M., Schweitzer, D., 9 Umbrazunas, G., Wursten, E., Blaum, K., Matsuda, Y., Mooser, A., Quint, W., Soter, A., Walz, J., Smorra, C., Ulmer, S.: Trap- integrated fluorescence detection with silico...

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