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REVIEW 3 major objections 4 minor 1 cited by

High-Energy Cosmic-Ray Propagation in the Milky Way and the Associated Diffuse Gamma-Ray Emission

T0 review · 3 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-16 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read This thesis shows that GALPROP cosmic-ray transport models, after masking catalogued sources and adding unresolved ones, reproduce the Milky Way's diffuse gamma-ray emission from TeV to PeV energies.

desk verdict Solid thesis with two peer-reviewed papers inside; the HGPS 'agreement' claim outruns the lower-limit data, but the modelling-variation and time-variability results are genuinely useful. read the letter →

arxiv 2504.18796 v1 pith:YTZJCKX7 submitted 2025-04-26 astro-ph.HE

Peter Marinos This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.HE
keywords cosmicraysgamma-rayastronomydiffuseemissionGALPROPGalacticcosmic-raytransportTeVgammaPeCTA
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper tries to establish that the standard GALPROP model of cosmic-ray transport, tuned to GeV-scale local measurements, continues to predict the Milky Way's diffuse gamma-ray emission correctly at TeV and PeV energies. It does this by comparing simulated gamma-ray maps to the H.E.S.S. Galactic plane survey after masking the 78 catalogued sources and adding estimates of unresolved sources, and to LHAASO's PeV measurements. The author also quantifies, for the first time, how much the TeV predictions vary with model choices such as source distribution, interstellar radiation field, magnetic field, and stochastic source placement, finding that the magnetic field changes the large-scale emission by about a factor of two above 1 TeV. If right, the result makes GALPROP a reliable diffuse background model for current and next-generation TeV observatories and narrows where cosmic-ray sources sit in the Galaxy.

What carries the argument

The central object is GALPROP's numerical solution of the three-dimensional cosmic-ray transport equation, with an isotropic, homogeneous spatial diffusion coefficient $D_{xx}(R)=\beta D_0(R/4\,\mathrm{GV})^{\delta}$ plus diffusive reacceleration. This diffusion law, with the index $\delta$ fitted to local cosmic-ray spectra and taking values near 0.34 to 0.35 for the source distributions considered, is what converts assumed source, gas, radiation-field, and magnetic-field inputs into cosmic-ray densities and hence gamma-ray skymaps. The comparison machinery is a sliding-window longitudinal profile applied identically to simulated and observed maps, with the HGPS sources masked using the survey's own source model and an unresolved-source fraction added to represent what the telescope cannot resolve.

What would settle it

A decisive test would be a clean measurement of the diffuse gamma-ray spectrum between 10 TeV and 1 PeV in a region with few discrete sources, compared directly with the GALPROP prediction at the fitted $\delta\sim0.34$; if the observed flux falls outside the model's factor-of-two magnetic-field band, or shows a spectral break the model cannot produce, the claimed TeV-PeV accuracy fails.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

GALPROP's steady-state, diffusion-plus-reacceleration models of Galactic cosmic-ray transport, with a rigidity-dependent diffusion coefficient fitted to local cosmic-ray data, produce diffuse gamma-ray skies that are broadly compatible with the HGPS large-scale emission once catalogued sources are masked and an unresolved-source component is included. The same models match LHAASO's diffuse PeV observations, so the demonstrated accuracy extends from the GeV regime into the TeV-PeV regime. At 1 TeV, electrons contribute roughly half of the large-scale emission; above 1 TeV the choice of Galactic magnetic field model changes the predicted emission by about a factor of two; and in time-dependent runs the electron flux at Earth above 1 TeV varies by more than a factor of ten over a few million years. The proposed CTA Galactic plane survey should be sensitive enough to detect the large-scale diffuse TeV emission.

Load-bearing premise

The load-bearing premise is that cosmic-ray transport in the Milky Way is smooth and direction-independent, with a single energy-dependent diffusion coefficient that remains valid up to PeV energies.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • GALPROP can serve as a diffuse background model for TeV-PeV gamma-ray analyses, in the same role it already plays at GeV energies for Fermi-LAT.
  • Because electrons contribute about half of the 1 TeV large-scale emission, TeV source studies must account for inverse-Compton and bremsstrahlung emission, not only pion decay from hadronic interactions.
  • The factor-of-two sensitivity to the Galactic magnetic field above 1 TeV means magnetic-field uncertainty is a leading limitation on diffuse TeV predictions, not just the source distribution.
  • Time variability of the multi-TeV electron flux at Earth implies that single-epoch electron measurements must be interpreted cautiously.
  • The planned CTA Galactic plane survey will be sensitive enough to observe the large-scale diffuse TeV gamma-ray emission directly.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The author leaves implicit that the same source-masking and sliding-window comparison could be applied to other air-shower observatories with wider sky coverage, providing a cross-check of the claimed TeV-PeV agreement at intermediate latitudes and longitudes.
  • The narrow spread in fitted diffusion indices across the five source distributions suggests the TeV-PeV agreement is not strongly sensitive to the spiral-arm versus disk decomposition; a testable extension would compare the model's outer-Galaxy longitude profile to observations, where the source distribution matters most.
  • If the predicted multi-TeV electron variability is real, searches for nearby, recently active cosmic-ray accelerators could target the corresponding gamma-ray hotspots on million-year timescales, a consequence the paper does not chase.
  • The magnetic-field sensitivity above 1 TeV implies that future diffuse TeV surveys, combined with an independently pinned-down unresolved-source fraction, could be used to discriminate between Galactic magnetic-field models.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 4 minor

Summary. This thesis-style manuscript presents simulations of Galactic cosmic-ray (CR) transport with GALPROP, computing gamma-ray emission from 1 TeV to 1 PeV. Diffusion and injection parameters are fitted to local CR spectra from AMS-02 and Voyager, and the resulting predictions are compared with the H.E.S.S. Galactic plane survey (HGPS) after masking 78 catalogued sources, applying an integration beam, and adding an unresolved-source contribution. The manuscript also quantifies the modelling variation induced by choices of CR source distribution, interstellar radiation field, and Galactic magnetic field, and investigates time-dependent CR injection and the resulting variability of the TeV electron flux at Earth. The central claim is that GALPROP predictions are broadly compatible with the HGPS large-scale emission in the TeV regime and agree with LHAASO observations in the PeV regime, extending the validated energy range of GALPROP. The final chapter discusses the detectability of the diffuse Galactic emission with CTA.

Significance. If the agreement claim is established, the work would extend GALPROP's demonstrated accuracy into the TeV–PeV regime and would provide a useful reference for CTA background modelling. The manuscript has several genuine strengths: the optimisation parameters are reported in Table 2.4, the comparisons to HGPS and LHAASO use data not included in the fit (an external benchmark), the sliding-window analysis is explicitly tested for robustness to window width and spacing, and the systematic exploration of ISRF, source-distribution, GMF, and stochastic source-placement uncertainties is a useful contribution. The time-dependent study of TeV electron variability is also physically interesting. However, the support for the headline agreement claim is currently under-quantified, and the HGPS leg in particular rests on a lower-limit dataset corrected by an unresolved-source estimate that spans a factor of several.

major comments (3)
  1. [§3.4.1, §4.3.1–4.3.2] The HGPS comparison is the load-bearing part of the TeV agreement claim, but the observed quantity is a one-sided lower limit. Section 3.4.1 explicitly states that the adaptive-ring background method can include the large-scale gamma-ray emission in the off regions and that 'the HGPS flux can only be considered as a lower limit on the true large-scale gamma-ray emission'; Section 3.4 adds that the large-scale component was not detected at the 5σ level. After masking the 78 catalogued sources and adding an unresolved-source estimate ranging from 13% to 60% of the large-scale flux, the manuscript concludes 'broad compatibility' but reports no quantitative goodness-of-fit (no chi-square, residual RMS, or coverage fraction) for the corrected intensity profile. With a lower limit plus a factor-of-several additive correction, a model can be declared compatible over a wide range of model bias. I request a quantitative residual analysis against the corrected profile, with the full systematic band propagated, or a softened statement of the TeV agreement in the abstract and conclusion.
  2. [§4.3.2] The unresolved-source fraction is a dominant systematic: the text cites Steppa and Egberts (2020) at 13% and Cataldo et al. (2020) at 60% of the large-scale flux. The manuscript does not show how the GALPROP-to-HGPS comparison changes across this range, nor does it state which value is adopted for the final agreement claim. Because the add-back directly shifts the data by as much as a factor of ~1.7 between the low and high estimates, the agreement could be an artifact of the chosen value. The authors should display the sliding-window residual for at least the 13%, ~35%, and 60% cases, or explicitly justify a single adopted value and demonstrate that the conclusion is insensitive to it.
  3. [§2.7.1, Eq. (2.13)] The diffusion coefficient is assumed isotropic, homogeneous, and a single power law in rigidity, D(E) = beta D0 (rho/4 GV)^delta, with delta ≈ 0.34–0.35 fitted to CR spectra that are most constraining at GeV–TeV energies. The manuscript's PeV claim relies on extrapolating this parametrisation to PeV rigidities, where the gyroradius approaches the Galactic disk thickness and transport assumptions can change. The abstract asserts agreement with LHAASO, but the provided text does not quantify the constraining power of that comparison (e.g., what range of D0 and delta is excluded by the LHAASO data, or the systematic uncertainty from the assumed homogeneous isotropic diffusion). I ask the authors to state explicitly what the LHAASO comparison tests and to present the resulting allowed parameter range, or to qualify the PeV agreement claim accordingly.
minor comments (4)
  1. [Abstract] The phrase 'agree with observations of the diffuse gamma rays in the TeV regime by H.E.S.S.' overstates the result given the caveats in §3.4.1 and §4.3.2; a more precise wording such as 'broadly consistent with the HGPS large-scale emission after source masking and unresolved-source corrections' would match the analysis actually presented.
  2. [§3.4.1 / Chapter 4] The lower-limit nature of the HGPS flux is stated in §3.4.1 but is not restated when the comparison pipeline is built in Chapter 4; readers of the comparison figures in Chapter 5 may not realize the observed profile is biased low. A brief reminder sentence at the start of §4.3 would improve clarity.
  3. [§4.2.2] The residual from applying the telescopic beam to GALPROP can reach 10% for features smaller than 0.2°, and the text states the effect on the sliding-window profile is 'on the order of one part in ten thousand'. Showing the maximum residual over the longitudinal profile rather than a single descriptive value would make this robustness statement more transparent.
  4. [§2.2.4, Eqs. (2.44)–(2.47)] The cooling-distance equations mix D0 in cm^2 s^-1 with distances in parsecs and times in years without an explicit unit conversion; a brief note on the conversion factors used would prevent confusion for readers implementing these estimates.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 2.0 of 10

No constructional circularity: the GALPROP transport parameters are fitted to local CR spectra, while the TeV–PeV gamma-ray comparison uses independent HGPS/LHAASO data.

full rationale

The central derivation chain is not circular by construction. The diffusion coefficient, injection spectral indices, and normalisations are fitted to AMS-02 and Voyager cosmic-ray spectra at the Solar position (Section 2.7.1), and the resulting propagated CR populations are then used to predict the Galactic gamma-ray emission. The HGPS and LHAASO diffuse gamma-ray data are not used in this fit, so the comparison in the abstract is an external benchmark rather than a restatement of the input. The HGPS comparison does rely on masking catalogued sources and adding an unresolved-source contribution whose literature range is 13–60%, and the paper itself notes that the adaptive-ring background makes the public HGPS flux maps lower limits on the large-scale emission; these are important caveats that weaken the strength of the claimed agreement, but they are observational-systematic uncertainties rather than a reduction of the prediction to its inputs. The main self-citations, Marinos et al. 2023 and 2025, are papers embedded in this thesis and therefore do not provide independent support, but they are not load-bearing for the central comparison: the HGPS/LHAASO agreement is computed from the model and external sky maps, not derived from those citations. No equation or fitted parameter is renamed as a prediction, and no uniqueness or ansatz is imported solely from the authors' prior work. Thus the appropriate finding is no significant circularity, with the minor self-citation issue reflected in the non-zero end of the 0–2 band.

Assumptions & free parameters 8 free parameters · 7 assumptions · 1 invented entities

The central claim rests on standard CR transport physics encoded in GALPROP plus several fitted inputs. The diffusion coefficient and injection spectra are fitted to local CR observations; the gamma-ray maps are then predictions. No new particles or forces are introduced. The main external assumptions are the Galactic gas maps, ISRF models, GMF models, and the unresolved source fraction range taken from prior work.

free parameters (8)
  • D_xx,0 (diffusion coefficient normalisation at 4 GV) = 4.36, 4.39, 4.55, 4.67, 4.66 x 1e28 cm^2/s (SA0 to SA100)
    Fitted to local CR spectra for each source distribution (Table 2.4).
  • delta (diffusion spectral index) = 0.354, 0.349, 0.344, 0.340, 0.339
    Fitted to local CR spectra (Table 2.4).
  • v_Alfven (reacceleration velocity) = 17.8, 18.2, 18.1, 19.8, 19.1 km/s
    Fitted to local CR spectra (Table 2.4).
  • Proton injection spectrum (J_p, eta_p0/1/2, break rigidities) = J_p 4.096-4.394 x 1e-9, indices and breaks in Table 2.4
    Fitted to local proton CR data (AMS-02, Voyager) per source distribution.
  • Electron injection spectrum (J_e, eta_e0/1/2, break rigidities) = J_e 3.925-4.502 x 1e-10, indices and breaks in Table 2.4
    Fitted to local electron CR data per source distribution.
  • Helium injection spectrum (eta_He0/1/2, break rigidities) = indices and breaks in Table 2.4
    Fitted to local Helium CR data per source distribution.
  • Heavy nuclei Z>=3 injection spectrum (eta_Z0/1/2, breaks) = indices and breaks in Table 2.4
    Fitted to local CR data for Be, B, C, O, Mg, Ne, Si per source distribution.
  • Sliding-window analysis parameters = -1.5 deg < b < 1.0 deg, Delta_w = 15 deg, Delta_s = 1 deg
    Chosen by hand after robustness tests against variations; not fitted to gamma-ray data.
assumptions (7)
  • standard math CR transport obeys the Ginzburg-Syrovatskii diffusion equation with source, diffusion, convection, reacceleration, and loss terms.
    Invoked in Section 2.1, Equation 2.14 as the governing equation solved by GALPROP.
  • domain assumption The spatial diffusion coefficient is isotropic and homogeneous, with a single power-law in rigidity.
    Stated in Section 2.7.1 as a GALPROP v57 limitation; the thesis does not enable anisotropic diffusion.
  • domain assumption CR sources trace the Galactic disk and spiral arm distributions derived from pulsars and SNRs.
    Section 2.3 describes the five SA0-SA100 source distributions; source locations are not known a priori.
  • domain assumption ISM gas maps from HI4PI, CO surveys, dark gas corrections, and the NE2001 HII model adequately represent the gas distribution.
    Section 2.4 describes the gas models used for hadronic gamma-ray production and energy losses.
  • domain assumption The F98 and R12 ISRF models bracket the true interstellar radiation field.
    Section 2.5 states both models are treated as upper and lower limits on Galactic infrared emissions.
  • domain assumption The GMF is represented by GASE or PBSS models; halo component of Pshirkov is neglected following Porter et al. 2017.
    Section 2.6 states the halo has negligible impact on CR diffusion and gamma-ray production.
  • domain assumption The unresolved source fraction in the HGPS lies in the 13-60 percent range from Steppa and Egberts 2020 and Cataldo et al. 2020.
    Section 3.4.1 and Chapter 4 use these literature estimates to correct HGPS large-scale emission before comparison.
invented entities (1)
  • none
    purpose: no new particles, forces, or conserved quantities are introduced
    The work uses existing GALPROP physics and standard Galactic components.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of High-Energy Cosmic-Ray Propagation in the Milky Way and the Associated Diffuse Gamma-Ray Emission." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/YTZJCKX7

@misc{pith2026250418796,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: High-Energy Cosmic-Ray Propagation in the Milky Way and the Associated Diffuse Gamma-Ray Emission},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/YTZJCKX7}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2504.18796}
}
abstract

Simulations of Galactic CR transport were performed with the software GALPROP, with the resulting gamma-ray flux calculated up to the PeV regime. The impact of altering parameters such as the number and distribution of CR sources, the distribution of infrared radiation between stars, and the distribution and strength of the Galactic magnetic field (GMF), were investigated. For the first time the modelling variation in the TeV predictions due to uncertainties in the Galactic distributions was quantified. Additionally, the modelling variation from considering a stochastic placement of the CR sources was quantified up to 1 PeV. The simulation results were compared to the most detailed Galactic TeV gamma-ray survey: the H.E.S.S. Galactic plane survey (HGPS). The GALPROP predictions were broadly compatible with the large-scale emission from the HGPS after accounting for both the catalogued sources and estimates of the unresolved source fraction. At 1 TeV the gamma-ray emission from CR electrons was found to contribute $\sim$50\% to the large-scale emission. The GMF was found to be an important modelling consideration above 1 TeV as it impacted the large-scale emission by approximately a factor of two. Additionally, the CR electron flux at Earth above 1 TeV was found to vary by over a factor of ten over a period of a few million years due. The GALPROP models were found to agree with observations of the diffuse gamma rays in the TeV regime by H.E.S.S., and the PeV regime by LHAASO, extending the demonstrated accuracy of GALPROP into the TeV--PeV regime. The results will also inform the next generation of experiments, such as the Cherenkov telescope array (CTA), on possible observation strategies and background considerations. It was also found that the proposed CTA Galactic plane survey will be sensitive enough to observe the large-scale diffuse gamma-ray emission in the TeV regime.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2504.18796 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.1. The EGRET 𝛾-ray flux integrated above 100 MeV (top image; Hartman et al., 1999), and the Fermi–LAT 𝛾-ray flux integrated above 1 GeV for the first five years of operation (bottom image; Ackermann et al., 2012). The diffuse emission can overpower low surface-brightness 𝛾-ray sources, especially in the GeV–TeV energy regime. Hence, it is critical that accurate and precise models of the background diffuse emission be c… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p020_2.png] view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (92 more)
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1. Figure 2.1: A 𝑝–𝑝 collision creating neutral pions (𝜋 0 ) and charged pions (𝜋 ± ) is shown on the left, with 𝜒 representing any additional particles created within the interaction to conserve baryon number and electric charge. The interaction has the equation 𝑝 + 𝑝 → 𝜒 + 𝑛0𝜋 0 …
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p022_2.png]
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.2. Figure 2.2: A Bremsstrahlung interaction, where an electron ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p023_2_2.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p023_2.png]
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.3. Figure 2.3: A synchrotron event, where an electron ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p025_2_3.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p025_2.png]
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.4. Figure 2.4: An IC scattering event, where a photon ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p026_2_4.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p026_2.png]
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.5. Figure 2.5: A pair production event, where two photons ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p029_2_5.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p029_2.png]
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.6. Figure 2.6: The transmittance along the line-of-sight due to pair-production as a function [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p030_2_6.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p031_2.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p032_2.png]
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.7. Figure 2.7: The cooling times (top) and cooling distances (bottom) as functions of the CR [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p033_2_7.png]
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.8. Figure 2.8: The CR energy density in arbitrary units for the SA0 (top left), SA25 (top [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p036_2_8.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p037_2.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p039_2.png]
Figure 2.9
Figure 2.9. Figure 2.9: The F98 ISRF energy density in arbitrary units integrated over the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p040_2_9.png]
Figure 2.10
Figure 2.10. Figure 2.10: The R12 ISRF energy density in arbitrary units integrated over the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p043_2_10.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p044_2.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p048_2.png]
Figure 2.11
Figure 2.11. Figure 2.11: The GASE GMF field strength in arbitrary units integrated over the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p049_2_11.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p049_2.png]
Figure 2.12
Figure 2.12. Figure 2.12: The PBSS GMF field strength in arbitrary units integrated over the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p050_2_12.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p050_2.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p055_2.png]
Figure 2.13
Figure 2.13. Figure 2.13: An example of the linear and tan grid functions that can be used in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p057_2_13.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p059_2.png]
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p062_3.png]
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.1. Figure 3.1: Diagram of the Heitler model (Heitler, 1954) of a lepton-initiated shower (top) and a hadron-initiated shower (bottom). The interaction/radiation lengths are not to scale, and multiple products may be created at each intersection on the diagram. The particles represe…
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p065_3.png]
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.2. Figure 3.2: A simplified diagram of a single EAS event observed by two telescopes. Each [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p066_3_2.png]
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.3. Figure 3.3: HGPS flux map integrated for energies 𝐸𝛾 ≥ 1 TeV for Galactic longitudes l = 290◦ to l = 50◦ and Galactic latitudes |b| ≤ 2 ◦ for the 𝑅𝑐 = 0.2 ◦ map (described in Section 3.2.2). The catalogued 𝛾-ray sources are shown by the white dashed circles [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:fig…
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p068_3.png]
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p069_3.png]
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.4. Figure 3.4: HGPS flux map for Galactic longitudes l = 330◦ to l = 0 ◦ and Galactic latitudes |b| ≤ 2 ◦ for the 𝑅𝑐 = 0.1 ◦ map (top) and the 𝑅𝑐 = 0.2 ◦ map (bottom). The catalogued 𝛾-ray sources are shown by the white dashed circles, and both maps are shown with an identical colo…
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.5. Figure 3.5: A demonstration of the adaptive ring background subtraction method, shown [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p072_3_5.png]
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p073_3.png]
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.6. Figure 3.6: The 5𝜎 sensitivity for various 𝛾-ray facilities. Sensitivities are shown for a 50-hour observation, unless stated otherwise. The sensitivity curves are from the following: H.E.S.S. (Holler et al., 2015), MAGIC (Aleksić et al., 2016), VERITAS (Horan et al., 2007), CTA…
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p074_3.png]
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.7. Figure 3.7: A top-down view of the MW showing the 5𝜎 point-source detection horizon for the HGPS for 𝛾-ray luminosities 1034 erg s−1 (∼100% Crab; blue) and 1033 erg s−1 (∼10% Crab; orange). The GC is located at the origin, with the Solar location shown by 𝑅⊙ = 8.5 kpc from the G…
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p076_3.png]
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.8. Figure 3.8: A diagram of the sliding window method used by [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p082_3_8.png]
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p082_3.png]
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p083_3.png]
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.1. Figure 4.1: A diagram of the construction of the sliding window. The Galactic latitude [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p086_4_1.png]
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p086_4.png]
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.2. Figure 4.2: A latitudinal profile of the HGPS flux and sensitivity for the longitudes [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p087_4_2.png]
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p087_4.png]
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.3. Figure 4.3: A longitudinal profile of both the HGPS and [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p088_4_3.png]
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.4. Figure 4.4: A longitudinal profile of both the HGPS and [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p089_4_4.png]
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p089_4.png]
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.5. Figure 4.5: The absolute residuals, shown as a percentage, for the total [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p091_4_5.png]
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.6. Figure 4.6: A longitudinal profile of the Galprop emission with no telescope beam applied (blue), and telescope beams with radii 𝑅𝑐 = 0.1 ◦ (orange dashed) and 𝑅𝑐 = 0.2 ◦ (green dotted). The analysis follows the sliding window recipe discussed in Section 4.1, with Δ𝑠 = 1 ◦ and Δ…
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p092_4.png]
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p093_4.png]
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.7. Figure 4.7: HGPS flux map for Galactic longitudes 10◦ ≤ l ≤ 340◦ and Galactic latitudes −2 ◦ < b < +2 ◦ for the 𝑅𝑐 = 0.2 ◦ map. The flux is shown before the mask is applied (top) and after the mask is applied (bottom). For a description of sources with and without an association…
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p095_4.png]
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.8. Figure 4.8: Longitudinal profile of the HGPS for 𝑅𝑐 = 0.1 ◦ (solid lines) and 𝑅𝑐 = 0.2 ◦ (dashed lines). The shown profiles are for no sources masked (purple), only sources with an association masked (grey), and all sources masked (red). The grey and red lines represent the rang…
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p096_4.png]
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p097_3.png]
Figure 4.9
Figure 4.9. Figure 4.9: Longitudinal profile of the HGPS emission for a beam size of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p098_4_9.png]
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p098_4.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p115_2.png]
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.1. Figure 6.1: The CR proton (top) and electron (bottom) flux as a function of time at the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p120_6_1.png]
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.2. Figure 6.2: The local CR electron flux at 1 TeV as a function of time for the output [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p122_6_2.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p122_2.png]
Figure 6.3
Figure 6.3. Figure 6.3: CR electron spectral envelopes at the Solar location (top) and the IC [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p123_6_3.png]
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p124_6.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p124_2.png]
Figure 6.4
Figure 6.4. Figure 6.4: The CR energy density along the XY plane (i.e. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p125_6_4.png]
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.5. Figure 6.5: The CR electron flux at 1 TeV shown at the Solar location as a function of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p126_6_5.png]
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p126_6.png]
Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: shows the primary CR electron flux predicted by GALPROP at the Solar location across all six source parameter combinations for the final 5 Myr. The GALPROP predictions are shown by two envelopes that contain the flux curves for the central 68% and 99% of timesteps. The…
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: The CR electron variation within the Galactic plane depends most strongly on the source distribution and is largely independent of the GMF strength. This behavior may be altered by using other GMF models or by linking the spatial diffusion coefficient to the GMF streng…
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: ) and the IC emission becoming a more dominant component of the diffuse emission above 1 TeV (P. D. Marinos et al. 2023). At 0.1 TeV, all but the L100R500 source parameter combinations have a similar degree of variability, with maximum containment factors ranging from …
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The total γ-ray emission S68 containment factor sky maps across the final 5 Myr. From left- to right-hand, the columns are: 0.1 TeV, 1 TeV, and 10 TeV. From top to bottom, the rows are: L010R100, L050R100, L100R100, L200R100, L100R050, and L100R500. The color scale cha…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Differential γ-ray spectra for the LHAASO regions for the final 5 Myr of the L100R100 source parameter combination. The steady-state π0 - decay emission is shown by the orange line and the 99% envelopes are shown for the time-dependent IC emission (blue hatched band) a…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Differential γ-ray spectra for the polar regions for the final 5 Myr across all source parameter combinations. The 99% envelopes are shown for the total γ-ray emission for the following source parameter combinations: L010R100 (blue shaded band), L050R100 (orange shaded…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: shows a comparison between the HGPS long￾itudinal profile and the GALPROP envelopes after applying the averaging window. The purple and orange hatched bands are the 68% and 99% envelopes, respectively, for the total integrated γ-ray flux above 1 TeV across all six sour…
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Variation factors for the hadronic spectra at the Solar location for the final 5 Myr for the L100R100 source parameter combination. The GALPROP containment factors are calculated over a 5 Myr period, and are shown by: S68 (solid lines), S95 (dashed lines), protons (bl…
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p143_3.png]
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p144_3.png]
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.1. Figure 8.1: Integrated 𝛾-ray flux above 1 TeV around HESS J1614–518 from the HGPS (left) and the steady-state SA100/R12/PBSS combination from Galprop (right). The analysis region used for extracting the Galprop emission is shown by the green circle. The HGPS sources HESS J1614–5…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p147_8.png]
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.2. Figure 8.2: Differential photon flux envelope from Galprop (blue shaded band) and the CTA reconstruction (orange points). Energy bins with 𝑆 < 2 are shown as upper limits, with the total significance shown in the top right corner. The reconstruction is calculated with three bins…
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.3. Figure 8.3: Integrated 𝛾-ray flux above 1 TeV around RX J1713.7–3946 from the HGPS (left) and the steady-state SA100/R12/PBSS combination from Galprop (right). The four analysis regions used for extracting the Galprop emission are shown by green circles (labelled as NW, NE, SW, …
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p149_8.png]
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.4. Figure 8.4: Differential photon flux envelopes from Galprop (blue shaded band) and the CTA reconstructions (orange points). Energy bins with 𝑆 < 2 are shown as upper limits, with the total significance shown in the top right corner of each panel. The reconstruction is calculated…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p150_8.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p155_2.png]
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p159_2.png]

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  1. Uncertainty in Hadronic Diffuse $\gamma$-Ray Emission from the Temporal Stochasticity of Cosmic-Ray Sources

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 16, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.