A suspended wire heats air in a sealed cavity, deflecting a membrane to create tactile bumps with >1 N force and ~1 mm displacement at ~10 V.
Batch fabrication of optical actuators using nanotube–elastomer composites towards refreshable braille displays,
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Thermopneumatic Pixels: Fast, Localized, Robust, Low-Voltage Touch Feedback
A suspended wire heats air in a sealed cavity, deflecting a membrane to create tactile bumps with >1 N force and ~1 mm displacement at ~10 V.