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arxiv: 2507.23327 · v1 · submitted 2025-07-31 · 🪐 quant-ph

High-Performance Fully Passive Discrete-State Continuous-Variable Quantum Key Distribution With Local Local Oscillator

Yu Zhang , Xuyang Wang , Chenyang Li , Jie Yun , Qiang Zeng , Zhiliang Yuan , Zhenguo Lu , Yongmin Li This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-19 02:26 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🪐 quant-ph
keywords continuous-variable quantum key distributionfully passive protocollocal local oscillatordiscrete statesconvex optimizationsecret key ratequantum networks
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The pith

A fully passive discrete-state CV-QKD with local local oscillator reaches 100 km at 1 GHz repetition rate and 127 kbps secret key rate.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper proposes and demonstrates a continuous-variable quantum key distribution protocol that is fully passive on the source side. It removes all modulator side channels by replacing active modulation with specially designed phase rotation and discretization methods while using a local local oscillator at the receiver. Secret key rates are bounded via convex optimization applied to the known prepared-state amplitudes and the measured first- and second-order quadrature moments at the receiver, without any assumptions imposed on the quantum channel. The resulting system maintains a 1 GHz repetition rate over 100 km of fiber and delivers an estimated 127 kbps secure key rate, matching the performance of actively modulated CV-LLO protocols and exceeding other passive discrete-variable and CV schemes.

Core claim

By combining passive discrete-state preparation through phase rotation and discretization at the transmitter with a local local oscillator and convex optimization at the receiver, the protocol achieves a maximum transmission length of 100 km at 1 GHz with a 127 kbps secret key rate estimated solely from prepared-state amplitudes and first- and second-order quadrature moments without imposing assumptions on the quantum channel.

What carries the argument

Phase rotation and discretization methods at the transmitter together with convex optimization on measured first- and second-order quadrature moments at the receiver to bound the secret key rate.

If this is right

  • All modulator side channels on the source side are eliminated.
  • Performance matches that of actively modulated CV-LLO protocols.
  • The scheme outperforms existing passive discrete-variable and CV protocols.
  • The protocol is suitable for quantum metropolitan area networks and quantum access networks.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Hardware simplification could follow if passive preparation replaces active modulators in deployed QKD systems.
  • The approach may extend to multi-user or network-scale deployments where side-channel resistance is critical.
  • Real-fiber tests with fluctuating loss would further confirm whether the 100 km distance holds under practical conditions.

Load-bearing premise

The convex optimization procedure produces a valid lower bound on the secret key rate from only the prepared-state amplitudes and the first- and second-order quadrature moments without hidden assumptions about channel noise or state fidelity.

What would settle it

An experiment in which an eavesdropper extracts information beyond the convex-optimization bound, causing the actual secure key rate to fall below the estimated 127 kbps over 100 km, would falsify the no-assumption security claim.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2507.23327 by Chenyang Li, Jie Yun, Qiang Zeng, Xuyang Wang, Yongmin Li, Yu Zhang, Zhenguo Lu, Zhiliang Yuan.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: FIG. 1. Schematic diagram of the passive discrete-state LLO [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p002_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: FIG. 2. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup. AWG: arbit [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p003_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: FIG. 3. The secret key rates at different transmission lengths: [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_3.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We propose and demonstrate a fully passive discrete-state continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CV-QKD), which can eliminate all modulator side channels on the source side, using a local local oscillator (LLO). The CV-QKD system achieves a maximum transmission length of 100 km with a repetition rate of 1 GHz using specially designed phase rotation and discretization methods, and the corresponding secret key bit rate is 127 kbps, as estimated based on the amplitude of prepared states at the transmitter, as well as the first- and second-order moments of quadratures at the receiver by employing the convex optimization without imposing any assumptions on the quantum channel. The performance of the protocol is similar to that of modulated CV LLO protocols and better than those of passive discrete-variable and CV protocols. Our protocol is expected to play an important role in the quantum metropolitan area networks and quantum access networks with high realistic security.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper proposes and experimentally demonstrates a fully passive discrete-state continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CV-QKD) protocol using a local local oscillator (LLO). It eliminates all modulator side channels on the source side via specially designed phase rotation and discretization methods at the transmitter. The system achieves a maximum transmission length of 100 km at a 1 GHz repetition rate, with a reported secret key rate of 127 kbps estimated from the amplitudes of prepared states at the transmitter together with the measured first- and second-order quadrature moments at the receiver, using convex optimization without any assumptions imposed on the quantum channel. Performance is stated to be comparable to modulated CV-LLO protocols and superior to passive discrete-variable and CV protocols.

Significance. If the security analysis is sound, the work offers a meaningful advance for practical CV-QKD in metropolitan and access networks by achieving high repetition rate and long distance while removing source-side side channels through a fully passive discrete-state approach. The use of convex optimization grounded in measured moments without channel assumptions provides a degree of external grounding for the key-rate bound. Experimental realization at 1 GHz over 100 km is a concrete strength.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract and performance estimation paragraph] Abstract and performance estimation paragraph: the secret-key-rate lower bound is obtained via convex optimization over states consistent with the known prepared amplitudes and the measured first- and second-order quadrature moments. For a discrete-state protocol the admissible set is non-Gaussian; it is not shown that the optimization explicitly enforces the discrete support (or an equivalent higher-moment constraint). Consequently the worst-case attack consistent with only the first two moments may be looser than the attack consistent with the full discrete ensemble, rendering the reported 127 kbps figure potentially optimistic.
  2. [Description of the specially designed phase rotation and discretization methods] Description of the specially designed phase rotation and discretization methods: these steps are presented as central to realizing the fully passive discrete-state source, yet no explicit equations, parameter values, or verification that the resulting ensemble remains strictly discrete are supplied. Without this, it is impossible to confirm that the convex-optimization input correctly reflects the prepared discrete states rather than an effective continuous ensemble.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] The abstract states the key rate is 'estimated based on the amplitude of prepared states... by employing the convex optimization'; a brief reference to the specific optimization formulation or supplementary material containing the SDP would improve traceability.
  2. [Performance comparison] A table comparing the achieved distance, repetition rate, and key rate against representative modulated CV-LLO and passive protocols would make the performance claim easier to evaluate at a glance.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their thorough review and valuable comments on our manuscript. We address each of the major comments in detail below and outline the revisions we plan to make.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract and performance estimation paragraph] Abstract and performance estimation paragraph: the secret-key-rate lower bound is obtained via convex optimization over states consistent with the known prepared amplitudes and the measured first- and second-order quadrature moments. For a discrete-state protocol the admissible set is non-Gaussian; it is not shown that the optimization explicitly enforces the discrete support (or an equivalent higher-moment constraint). Consequently the worst-case attack consistent with only the first two moments may be looser than the attack consistent with the full discrete ensemble, rendering the reported 127 kbps figure potentially optimistic.

    Authors: We appreciate the referee highlighting this subtlety in the security analysis. Our convex optimization minimizes the key rate over states that match the prepared discrete amplitudes and the observed first- and second-order moments. The discrete character is encoded in the finite set of known amplitudes used as constraints. Nevertheless, to rigorously demonstrate that the optimization accounts for the non-Gaussian discrete support and to rule out a potentially looser bound, we will add an explicit statement and, if necessary, additional constraints in the revised manuscript. This will strengthen the presentation of the security proof without altering the reported numerical results. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Description of the specially designed phase rotation and discretization methods] Description of the specially designed phase rotation and discretization methods: these steps are presented as central to realizing the fully passive discrete-state source, yet no explicit equations, parameter values, or verification that the resulting ensemble remains strictly discrete are supplied. Without this, it is impossible to confirm that the convex-optimization input correctly reflects the prepared discrete states rather than an effective continuous ensemble.

    Authors: We agree that additional technical details are required for full reproducibility and verification. In the revised version of the manuscript, we will insert the explicit mathematical expressions for the phase rotation and discretization procedures, including the specific parameter values employed in the experiment. We will also include supplementary verification, such as the measured distribution of the prepared states, to confirm that the ensemble is strictly discrete and that the convex optimization is fed with the correct discrete-state constraints. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; key-rate bound derived from measured data via standard convex optimization

full rationale

The central security claim computes the secret key rate directly from the known prepared-state amplitudes together with experimentally measured first- and second-order quadrature moments, using convex optimization that imposes no channel assumptions. This constitutes an external, data-driven bound rather than a self-referential derivation. No equations or self-citations reduce the reported 127 kbps figure or the 100 km reach to fitted parameters or prior author results by construction. The specially designed phase-rotation and discretization steps are protocol choices whose effect is evaluated against the measured moments, not defined in terms of the final key rate.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on standard quantum optics assumptions for quadrature measurements and the validity of convex optimization for secret key extraction; no new particles or forces are introduced, but the discretization and phase rotation methods introduce design choices whose independence from the final key rate is not fully detailed in the abstract.

free parameters (1)
  • phase rotation angles and discretization levels
    Specially designed parameters chosen to prepare states while maintaining passivity; their specific values are not given in the abstract but directly affect achievable distance and rate.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Quantum channel can be bounded using only first- and second-order quadrature moments via convex optimization
    Invoked in the key rate estimation paragraph of the abstract.

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Reference graph

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