pith. machine review for the scientific record. sign in

arxiv: 2512.07955 · v3 · submitted 2025-12-08 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA · astro-ph.CO

Recognition: 2 theorem links

· Lean Theorem

Tracing nitrogen enrichment across cosmic time with JWST

E. Cataldi , F. Belfiore , M. Curti , B. Moreschini , A. Marconi , R. Maiolino , A. Feltre , M. Ginolfi
show 17 more authors
F. Mannucci G. Cresci X. Ji A. Amiri M. Arnaboldi E. Bertola C. Bracci M. Ceci A. Chakraborty F. Cullen Q. D'Amato C. Kobayashi I. Lamperti C. Marconcini M. Scialpi L. Ulivi M. V. Zanchettin
Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-17 00:10 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA astro-ph.CO
keywords nitrogen enrichmenthigh-redshift galaxiesJWST spectroscopyN/O abundance ratiochemical evolutionstar-forming galaxiesauroral lines
0
0 comments X

The pith

Galaxies at z>1 exhibit N/O ratios elevated by ~0.18 dex at fixed O/H compared to local galaxies

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper measures the nitrogen-to-oxygen abundance ratio across a sample of roughly 660 star-forming galaxies at redshifts 1 to 6 using deep JWST spectroscopy. Direct electron-temperature abundances from auroral lines detected in 92 objects are used to calibrate strong-line diagnostics that are then applied to the remaining galaxies. The analysis shows a mild but systematic elevation in N/O at high redshift relative to local trends, with the offset growing larger at lower metallicities. A reader would care because this traces how the production and mixing of elements changed during the first few billion years of cosmic history. The work ties the trend to possible differences in star-formation timing or gas accretion.

Core claim

We find evidence for mild but systematic nitrogen enhancement at high redshift: galaxies at z>1 exhibit N/O ratios elevated by ~0.18 dex (median offset) at fixed O/H compared to local trends, with a more pronounced enhancement at low metallicity (i.e. 12 + log(O/H) < 8.1), where the offset reaches up to ~0.4-0.5 dex. We establish the first high-redshift calibrations of strong-line N/O diagnostics based on direct abundance measurements and consider scenarios including bursty star formation, differential metal loading, and inflows of pristine gas.

What carries the argument

The N/O versus O/H abundance relation derived from direct electron-temperature measurements using auroral emission lines and applied via strong-line calibrations to the full high-redshift sample

If this is right

  • The N2O2 diagnostic exhibits mild evolution while the N2S2 diagnostic shows no clear evolution relative to local calibrations
  • Scenarios of bursty star formation, differential metal loading, and pristine gas inflows can account for the observed nitrogen enhancement trends
  • Rest-optical diagnostics provide self-consistent confirmation of elevated N/O ratios at high redshift

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Chemical evolution models may need to incorporate more variable star-formation histories to match the redshift-dependent nitrogen enrichment
  • The trend could be tested by extending the same diagnostics to still higher redshifts or by cross-checking against other abundance ratios such as C/O
  • If driven by changes in stellar populations, the enhancement would affect predictions for nitrogen line strengths in spectra of the earliest galaxies

Load-bearing premise

The electron-temperature method applied to the 92 galaxies with auroral-line detections yields unbiased N/O values and the strong-line calibrations derived from them remain valid when applied to the remaining galaxies without high-redshift ionization or temperature-structure biases

What would settle it

A comparable sample of high-redshift galaxies in which N/O ratios measured with an independent technique such as ultraviolet lines or alternative temperature diagnostics shows no systematic offset from local relations at fixed O/H would falsify the enhancement

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2512.07955 by A. Amiri, A. Chakraborty, A. Feltre, A. Marconi, B. Moreschini, C. Bracci, C. Kobayashi, C. Marconcini, E. Bertola, E. Cataldi, F. Belfiore, F. Cullen, F. Mannucci, G. Cresci, I. Lamperti, L. Ulivi, M. Arnaboldi, M. Ceci, M. Curti, M. Ginolfi, M. Scialpi, M. V. Zanchettin, Q. D'Amato, R. Maiolino, X. Ji.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Redshift distribution of the 506 galaxies for which we [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p003_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Flowchart summarizing the decision process adopted [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Relation between the N/O ratio measured using the Te method and the N2O2 (left) and N2S2 (right) diagnostics for our full high-z auroral-line sample. For comparison, we include local galaxies with auroral-line detections from the literature as gray points (see references in Sec. 2.1.3). The local calibration from Pérez-Montero & Contini (2009) is shown in blue and a fit to the SDSS stacks of Curti et al. (… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Relation between N/O and O/H for our full sample, as described in Section 2. Gold hexagons indicate MARTA galaxies with direct measurements, and light-blue triangles show the JWST auroral-line dataset. High-redshift strong-line galaxies from the literature are plotted as teal triangles, and local galaxies (both direct and strong-line measurements) as grey circles. White squares represent local galaxies bin… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Same as Figure [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Same as Figure [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_7.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We present a comprehensive analysis of the nitrogen-to-oxygen (N/O) abundance ratio in a sample of ~ 660 star-forming galaxies at redshift z ~ 1-6, with a median redshift of z = 3.0, using deep JWST/NIRSpec spectroscopy. Leveraging detections of faint auroral emission lines in 92 galaxies at z>1 from both the MARTA survey and a large compilation of high-redshift literature objects, we derive direct electron temperature-based abundances for nitrogen and oxygen using rest-frame optical lines. We establish the first high-redshift calibrations of strong-line N/O diagnostics based on 'direct' abundance measurements, finding a mild evolution for the N2O2 = log([NII]6585/[OII]3727,3729) diagnostic and no clear evolution for the N2S2 = log([NII]6585/[SII]6717,6731) diagnostic compared to local realisations. We then investigate the N/O-O/H relation across cosmic time using both 'direct' abundances and strong-lines based measurements (additional 535 galaxies). We find evidence for mild but systematic nitrogen enhancement at high redshift: galaxies at z>1 exhibit N/O ratios elevated by ~0.18 dex (median offset) at fixed O/H compared to local trends, with a more pronounced enhancement at low metallicity (i.e. 12 + log(O/H) < 8.1), where the offset reaches up to ~0.4-0.5 dex. We consider several scenarios to explain the observed trends, including bursty star formation, differential metal loading, and inflows of pristine gas. Our results provide the most extensive confirmation of elevated N/O ratios at high-redshift to date based on rest-optical diagnostics and within a self-consistent frame.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 3 minor

Summary. The manuscript analyzes N/O abundance ratios in ~660 star-forming galaxies at z~1-6 (median z=3) using JWST/NIRSpec spectroscopy. Direct electron-temperature abundances are derived for 92 galaxies with auroral-line detections; these anchor new high-redshift calibrations of the N2O2 and N2S2 strong-line diagnostics, which are then applied to 535 additional objects. The central result is a mild but systematic N/O enhancement at high redshift: a median offset of ~0.18 dex at fixed O/H relative to local trends, reaching 0.4-0.5 dex at low metallicity (12+log(O/H)<8.1). Possible explanations include bursty star formation, differential metal loading, and pristine-gas inflows.

Significance. If the enhancement is robust, the work supplies the largest rest-optical N/O sample at high redshift to date together with the first high-z strong-line calibrations tied to direct T_e measurements. This would strengthen evidence for altered nitrogen enrichment in early galaxies and provide reusable diagnostics for future JWST programs. The direct subsample of 92 objects and the self-consistent calibration framework are clear strengths.

major comments (2)
  1. [§4] §4 (strong-line calibration): The headline 0.18 dex median offset (and the larger low-metallicity offsets) is driven primarily by the 535 galaxies that rely on the newly fitted N2O2 and N2S2 relations. The manuscript provides no quantitative test (e.g., Cloudy grids at z~3 ionization parameters, densities, and temperature structures) that these ratios map one-to-one to N/O when U or T_e fluctuations differ from the local calibrators; this leaves the central claim vulnerable to calibration artifact.
  2. [§3.2] §3.2 (direct abundances): The assumption that the single-zone T_e method applied to the 92 auroral detections yields unbiased N/O values is load-bearing for the entire calibration chain. The paper should quantify the impact of plausible temperature fluctuations or multi-zone effects on the derived N/O ratios before the relations are extrapolated.
minor comments (3)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: the statement that N2O2 shows 'mild evolution' should be accompanied by the quantitative change in slope or zero-point relative to local calibrations.
  2. [Figure 7] Figure 7 (N/O vs O/H): separate the direct and strong-line subsamples with distinct symbols so the reader can assess how much the claimed offset depends on the calibrated points.
  3. [§4.1] Notation: the definition of the N2O2 index should explicitly state whether the [O II] doublet is summed or treated as a single feature; this affects reproducibility of the calibration coefficients.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their detailed and constructive comments, which have helped us improve the clarity and robustness of the manuscript. We address each major comment below and indicate the revisions made.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [§4] §4 (strong-line calibration): The headline 0.18 dex median offset (and the larger low-metallicity offsets) is driven primarily by the 535 galaxies that rely on the newly fitted N2O2 and N2S2 relations. The manuscript provides no quantitative test (e.g., Cloudy grids at z~3 ionization parameters, densities, and temperature structures) that these ratios map one-to-one to N/O when U or T_e fluctuations differ from the local calibrators; this leaves the central claim vulnerable to calibration artifact.

    Authors: We thank the referee for this important caveat. The N2O2 and N2S2 calibrations presented in §4 are derived empirically from our own high-redshift direct-abundance subsample, so they are tied to the typical ionization conditions, densities, and temperature structures present at z~3 rather than being extrapolated from local relations. This empirical anchoring is the primary reason we consider the relations applicable. That said, we agree that an explicit discussion of possible residual systematics would strengthen the paper. In the revised manuscript we have added a dedicated paragraph in §4 that references existing high-redshift Cloudy grids (e.g., those of Hirschmann et al. and recent JWST-specific models) and shows that, for the range of U and n_e spanned by our direct sample, the N2O2 and N2S2 diagnostics remain monotonic with N/O to within ~0.1 dex. We have also included a brief sensitivity test using the observed [O III] λ5007/[O II] ratio as a proxy for U. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [§3.2] §3.2 (direct abundances): The assumption that the single-zone T_e method applied to the 92 auroral detections yields unbiased N/O values is load-bearing for the entire calibration chain. The paper should quantify the impact of plausible temperature fluctuations or multi-zone effects on the derived N/O ratios before the relations are extrapolated.

    Authors: We agree that a quantitative assessment of temperature fluctuations is necessary. In the revised §3.2 we have added a new subsection that estimates the effect of temperature fluctuations on the derived N/O ratios using the Peimbert t² formalism and the observed [O III] auroral-to-nebular ratio. For the median conditions of our direct sample we obtain t² ≈ 0.02–0.04, which translates to a bias in log(N/O) of ≲ 0.05 dex—substantially smaller than the reported 0.18 dex median offset. We have also expanded the text on multi-zone ionization, noting that the [N II] and [O II] lines used for N/O are formed in overlapping zones with the [O III] auroral line in the low-metallicity, high-excitation galaxies that dominate the sample, and we cite supporting high-redshift studies that reach similar conclusions. revision: yes

Circularity Check

1 steps flagged

N/O enhancement at high-z measured via direct T_e on 92 galaxies plus strong-line calibrations fitted to that subsample for 535 more

specific steps
  1. fitted input called prediction [Abstract]
    "Leveraging detections of faint auroral emission lines in 92 galaxies at z>1 ... we derive direct electron temperature-based abundances ... We establish the first high-redshift calibrations of strong-line N/O diagnostics based on 'direct' abundance measurements ... We then investigate the N/O-O/H relation across cosmic time using both 'direct' abundances and strong-lines based measurements (additional 535 galaxies). We find evidence for mild but systematic nitrogen enhancement at high redshift: galaxies at z>1 exhibit N/O ratios elevated by ~0.18 dex (median offset) at fixed O/H compared to the"

    The N2O2 and N2S2 calibrations are explicitly fitted to the direct T_e N/O values from the 92-galaxy auroral subsample. Applying those same fits to derive N/O for the 535 galaxies forces their N/O values to follow the same line-ratio-to-abundance mapping as the direct subsample by construction of the calibration; the reported high-z offset is therefore partly an extension of the fitted relation rather than a fully independent measurement on the larger sample.

full rationale

The paper derives direct N/O from auroral lines in 92 galaxies, fits new high-z strong-line calibrations (N2O2, N2S2) to those direct values, then applies the fits to obtain N/O for the remaining 535 galaxies before reporting the 0.18 dex median offset relative to local trends. This is a minor instance of fitted input used as measurement for the bulk sample; the offset itself is an external comparison and not forced by definition. No self-citation chains, ansatz smuggling, or renaming of known results appear in the provided text. The derivation remains largely self-contained against external local benchmarks.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on standard nebular-abundance techniques whose validity at high redshift is assumed rather than re-derived; the strong-line calibrations are fitted to the present sample.

free parameters (1)
  • N2O2 and N2S2 calibration coefficients
    Coefficients of the new high-redshift strong-line relations are determined from the 92 direct-abundance galaxies.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Auroral-line ratios yield reliable electron temperatures and therefore unbiased ionic abundances for N and O.
    Standard assumption in nebular astrophysics; invoked when deriving direct abundances for the 92 galaxies.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5754 in / 1339 out tokens · 35586 ms · 2026-05-17T00:10:57.658477+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Lean theorems connected to this paper

Citations machine-checked in the Pith Canon. Every link opens the source theorem in the public Lean library.

What do these tags mean?
matches
The paper's claim is directly supported by a theorem in the formal canon.
supports
The theorem supports part of the paper's argument, but the paper may add assumptions or extra steps.
extends
The paper goes beyond the formal theorem; the theorem is a base layer rather than the whole result.
uses
The paper appears to rely on the theorem as machinery.
contradicts
The paper's claim conflicts with a theorem or certificate in the canon.
unclear
Pith found a possible connection, but the passage is too broad, indirect, or ambiguous to say the theorem truly supports the claim.

Forward citations

Cited by 3 Pith papers

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score.

  1. Other red dots: A possible GLIMPSE of normal AGB stars at Cosmic Noon through extreme lensing

    astro-ph.GA 2026-04 conditional novelty 8.0

    Four faint red point sources near critical curves in JWST images of Abell S1063 are interpreted as extremely magnified AGB stars and a yellow supergiant at cosmic noon.

  2. Other red dots: A possible GLIMPSE of normal AGB stars at Cosmic Noon through extreme lensing

    astro-ph.GA 2026-04 unverdicted novelty 7.0

    Detection of extremely magnified individual AGB stars and a yellow supergiant at z~1-4 in JWST lensing observations of Abell S1063.

  3. Nitrogen abundances in star-forming galaxies 2.2 Gyr after the Big Bang are not elevated

    astro-ph.GA 2026-01 unverdicted novelty 6.0

    N/O ratios in z~3 star-forming galaxies are indistinguishable from low-redshift values over the metallicity range 12+log(O/H)=7.5-8.44.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

148 extracted references · 148 canonical work pages · cited by 2 Pith papers · 3 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    , " * write output.state after.block = add.period write newline

    ENTRY address archiveprefix author booktitle chapter edition editor howpublished institution eprint journal key month note number organization pages publisher school series title type volume year label extra.label sort.label short.list INTEGERS output.state before.all mid.sentence after.sentence after.block FUNCTION init.state.consts #0 'before.all := #1 ...

    work page

  2. [2]

    write newline

    " write newline "" before.all 'output.state := FUNCTION n.dashify 't := "" t empty not t #1 #1 substring "-" = t #1 #2 substring "--" = not "--" * t #2 global.max substring 't := t #1 #1 substring "-" = "-" * t #2 global.max substring 't := while if t #1 #1 substring * t #2 global.max substring 't := if while FUNCTION word.in bbl.in " " * FUNCTION format....

    work page

  3. [3]

    2019, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society

    Acharyya, A., Kewley, L., Rigby, J., et al. 2019, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society

    work page 2019

  4. [4]

    2021, , 505, 2361

    Amayo , A., Delgado-Inglada , G., & Stasi \'n ska , G. 2021, , 505, 2361

    work page 2021

  5. [5]

    Z., Berg , D

    Arellano-C \'o rdova , K. Z., Berg , D. A., Mingozzi , M., et al. 2025 a , , 544, 1588

    work page 2025

  6. [6]

    Z., Cullen , F., Carnall , A

    Arellano-C \'o rdova , K. Z., Cullen , F., Carnall , A. C., et al. 2025 b , , 540, 2991

    work page 2025

  7. [7]

    M., & Grevesse , N

    Asplund , M., Amarsi , A. M., & Grevesse , N. 2021, , 653, A141

    work page 2021

  8. [8]

    2015, , 449, 867

    Belfiore, F., Maiolino, R., Bundy, K., et al. 2015, , 449, 867

    work page 2015

  9. [9]

    A., Pogge, R

    Berg, D. A., Pogge, R. W., Skillman, E. D., et al. 2020, , 893, 96

    work page 2020

  10. [10]

    A., Skillman, E

    Berg, D. A., Skillman, E. D., Croxall, K. V., et al. 2015, , 806, 16

    work page 2015

  11. [11]

    A., Skillman, E

    Berg, D. A., Skillman, E. D., Marble, A. R., et al. 2012, , 754, 98

    work page 2012

  12. [12]

    The origin of extreme N-emitters in star-forming galaxies at z$<$0.5 with DESI DR1

    Bhattacharya , S. & Kobayashi , C. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2508.11998

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2025

  13. [13]

    D., Wolfire, M., & Leroy, A

    Bolatto, A. D., Wolfire, M., & Leroy, A. K. 2013, , 51, 207

    work page 2013

  14. [14]

    2023, msaexp: NIRSpec analyis tools

    Brammer , G. 2023, msaexp: NIRSpec analyis tools

    work page 2023

  15. [15]

    B., van Dokkum , P

    Brammer , G. B., van Dokkum , P. G., & Coppi , P. 2008, , 686, 1503

    work page 2008

  16. [16]

    Brinchmann, J., Charlot, S., White, S. D. M., et al. 2004, , 351, 1151

    work page 2004

  17. [17]

    J., Saxena , A., Cameron , A

    Bunker , A. J., Saxena , A., Cameron , A. J., et al. 2023, , 677, A88

    work page 2023

  18. [18]

    J., Rigby, J

    Byler, N., Kewley, L. J., Rigby, J. R., et al. 2020, arXiv:2003.06925 [astro-ph], arXiv: 2003.06925

    work page arXiv 2020

  19. [19]

    L., & Storchi-Bergmann, T

    Calzetti, D., Kinney, A. L., & Storchi-Bergmann, T. 1994, , 429, 582

    work page 1994

  20. [20]

    J., Katz , H., Rey , M

    Cameron , A. J., Katz , H., Rey , M. P., & Saxena , A. 2023, , 523, 3516

    work page 2023

  21. [21]

    A., Clayton, G

    Cardelli, J. A., Clayton, G. C., & Mathis, J. S. 1989, , 345, 245

    work page 1989

  22. [22]

    2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2403.10238

    Castellano , M., Napolitano , L., Fontana , A., et al. 2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2403.10238

    work page arXiv 2024

  23. [23]

    2025, , 703, A208

    Cataldi , E., Belfiore , F., Curti , M., et al. 2025, , 703, A208

    work page 2025

  24. [24]

    2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2507.08077

    Ceci , M., Marconcini , C., Marconi , A., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2507.08077

    work page arXiv 2025

  25. [25]

    2003, , 115, 763

    Chabrier, G. 2003, , 115, 763

    work page 2003

  26. [26]

    2025, , 985, 24

    Chakraborty , P., Sarkar , A., Smith , R., et al. 2025, , 985, 24

    work page 2025

  27. [27]

    2023, , 673, L7

    Charbonnel , C., Schaerer , D., Prantzos , N., et al. 2023, , 673, L7

    work page 2023

  28. [28]

    2006, , 449, L27

    Chiappini , C., Hirschi , R., Meynet , G., et al. 2006, , 449, L27

    work page 2006

  29. [29]

    J., et al

    Choustikov , N., Katz , H., Cameron , A. J., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2510.06347

    work page arXiv 2025

  30. [30]

    C., Dotter , A., et al

    Clontz , C., Seth , A. C., Dotter , A., et al. 2024, , 977, 14

    work page 2024

  31. [31]

    2025 a , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2509.06622

    Curti , M., Cataldi , E., Belfiore , F., et al. 2025 a , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2509.06622

    work page arXiv 2025

  32. [32]

    2017, , 465, 1384

    Curti, M., Cresci, G., Mannucci, F., et al. 2017, , 465, 1384

    work page 2017

  33. [33]

    2020, , 492, 821

    Curti, M., Maiolino, R., Cirasuolo, M., et al. 2020, , 492, 821

    work page 2020

  34. [34]

    2025 b , , 697, A89

    Curti , M., Witstok , J., Jakobsen , P., et al. 2025 b , , 697, A89

    work page 2025

  35. [35]

    2025 c , , 697, A89

    Curti , M., Witstok , J., Jakobsen , P., et al. 2025 c , , 697, A89

    work page 2025

  36. [36]

    JADES Data Release 4 Paper I: Sample Selection, Observing Strategy and Redshifts of the complete spectroscopic sample

    Curtis-Lake , E., Cameron , A. J., Bunker , A. J., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2510.01033

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2025

  37. [37]

    F., et al

    D'Antona , F., Ventura , P., Marino , A. F., et al. 2025, , 700, A265

    work page 2025

  38. [38]

    2023, , 680, L19

    D'Antona , F., Vesperini , E., Calura , F., et al. 2023, , 680, L19

    work page 2023

  39. [39]

    Dav \'e , R., Finlator , K., & Oppenheimer , B. D. 2012, , 421, 98

    work page 2012

  40. [40]

    2009, , 457, 451

    Dekel, A., Birnboim, Y., Engel, G., et al. 2009, , 457, 451

    work page 2009

  41. [41]

    Dopita , M. A. & Evans , I. N. 1986, , 307, 431

    work page 1986

  42. [42]

    A., Kewley, L

    Dopita, M. A., Kewley, L. J., Sutherland, R. S., & Nicholls, D. C. 2016, , 361, 61

    work page 2016

  43. [43]

    Draine , B. T. 2011, Physics of the Interstellar and Intergalactic Medium

    work page 2011

  44. [44]

    Edmunds , M. G. 1990, , 246, 678

    work page 1990

  45. [45]

    Overview of the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES)

    Eisenstein , D. J., Willott , C., Alberts , S., et al. 2023, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2306.02465

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2023

  46. [46]

    Garnett, D. R. 1990, , 363, 142

    work page 1990

  47. [47]

    Garnett, D. R. 1992, , 103, 1330

    work page 1992

  48. [48]

    D., Clayton , G

    Gordon , K. D., Clayton , G. C., Misselt , K. A., Landolt , A. U., & Wolff , M. J. 2003, , 594, 279

    work page 2003

  49. [49]

    M., van Hoof , P

    Gunasekera , C. M., van Hoof , P. A. M., Chatzikos , M., & Ferland , G. J. 2023, RNAAS, 7, 246

    work page 2023

  50. [50]

    G., Izotov, Y

    Guseva, N. G., Izotov, Y. I., Stasińska, G., et al. 2011, , 529, A149

    work page 2011

  51. [51]

    G., Papaderos , P., Meyer , H

    Guseva , N. G., Papaderos , P., Meyer , H. T., Izotov , Y. I., & Fricke , K. J. 2009, , 505, 63

    work page 2009

  52. [52]

    2022, , 512, 2867

    Hayden-Pawson , C., Curti , M., Maiolino , R., et al. 2022, , 512, 2867

    work page 2022

  53. [53]

    J., Saldana-Lopez , A., Citro , A., et al

    Hayes , M. J., Saldana-Lopez , A., Citro , A., et al. 2025, , 982, 14

    work page 2025

  54. [54]

    Henry , R. B. C., Edmunds , M. G., & K \"o ppen , J. 2000, , 541, 660

    work page 2000

  55. [55]

    2023, , 959, 100

    Isobe , Y., Ouchi , M., Tominaga , N., et al. 2023, , 959, 100

    work page 2023

  56. [56]

    I., Guseva , N

    Izotov , Y. I., Guseva , N. G., Fricke , K. J., & Papaderos , P. 2009, , 503, 61

    work page 2009

  57. [57]

    2022, , 661, A80

    Jakobsen , P., Ferruit , P., Alves de Oliveira , C., et al. 2022, , 661, A80

    work page 2022

  58. [58]

    2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2505.12505

    Ji , X., Belokurov , V., Maiolino , R., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2505.12505

    work page arXiv 2025

  59. [59]

    2024, , 535, 881

    Ji , X., \"U bler , H., Maiolino , R., et al. 2024, , 535, 881

    work page 2024

  60. [60]

    2023, , 951, L17

    Jones , T., Sanders , R., Chen , Y., et al. 2023, , 951, L17

    work page 2023

  61. [61]

    Kennicutt, Jr., R. C. 1998, , 36, 189

    work page 1998

  62. [62]

    J., Maier, C., Yabe, K., et al

    Kewley, L. J., Maier, C., Yabe, K., et al. 2013, , 774, L10

    work page 2013

  63. [63]

    J., Nicholls, D

    Kewley, L. J., Nicholls, D. C., & Sutherland, R. S. 2019, ARA&A, 57, 511

    work page 2019

  64. [64]

    Khoram, A. H. & Belfiore, F. 2025, , 693, A150

    work page 2025

  65. [65]

    & Ferrara , A

    Kobayashi , C. & Ferrara , A. 2024, , 962, L6

    work page 2024

  66. [66]

    & Hensler , G

    K \"o ppen , J. & Hensler , G. 2005, , 434, 531

    work page 2005

  67. [67]

    E., Reddy, N

    Kriek, M., Shapley, A. E., Reddy, N. A., et al. 2015, , 218, 15

    work page 2015

  68. [68]

    2002, Science, 295, 82

    Kroupa , P. 2002, Science, 295, 82

    work page 2002

  69. [69]

    Krumholz , M. R. & Dekel , A. 2012, , 753, 16

    work page 2012

  70. [70]

    Luridiana, V., Morisset, C., & Shaw, R. A. 2015, , 573, A42

    work page 2015

  71. [71]

    1992, , 264, 105

    Maeder , A. 1992, , 264, 105

    work page 1992

  72. [72]

    & Mannucci, F

    Maiolino, R. & Mannucci, F. 2019, , 27, 3

    work page 2019

  73. [73]

    2024, , 681, A30

    Marques-Chaves , R., Schaerer , D., Kuruvanthodi , A., et al. 2024, , 681, A30

    work page 2024

  74. [74]

    A., James , B

    Martinez , Z., Berg , D. A., James , B. L., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2510.21960

    work page arXiv 2025

  75. [75]

    2014, , 785, 153

    Masters, D., McCarthy, P., Siana, B., et al. 2014, , 785, 153

    work page 2014

  76. [76]

    1986, , 221, 911

    Matteucci, F. 1986, , 221, 911

    work page 1986

  77. [77]

    2025, , 540, 190

    McClymont, W., Tacchella, S., D’Eugenio, F., et al. 2025, , 540, 190

    work page 2025

  78. [78]

    2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2507.08787

    McClymont , W., Tacchella , S., Smith , A., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2507.08787

    work page arXiv 2025

  79. [79]

    S., Steidel, C

    McLean, I. S., Steidel, C. C., Epps, H. W., et al. 2012, in , Vol. 8446, Ground-based and Airborne Instrumentation for Astronomy IV , 84460J

    work page 2012

  80. [80]

    & Maeder , A

    Meynet , G. & Maeder , A. 2002, , 390, 561

    work page 2002

Showing first 80 references.